What should a modern person know? Knowledge and skills of a person in the modern world. Life Skills

The profession of "tester" today is one of the most sought after. And if programming is taught in higher educational institutions, then testing - unfortunately, no.

But testing can be learned with some effort. Of course, if you have chosen this direction of development for yourself.

How to do this, what a tester should know and what qualities a tester should have, we asked a specialist in the field of test management .

Boris has been involved in testing since 2001 and during his time at Luxoft participated in more than 16 successful projects for various customers as a tester, test designer, test manager.

Why did you start testing?
Before joining Luxoft, I was a task manager. I had to test for the compliance of the development with the requirements I wrote. So I had some testing experience before Luxoft. But it was rather a kind of spontaneous testing, I simply did not know many things. Yes, and earlier we (in the Soviet Union) did not have the concept of independent testing, and in Russia it did not appear immediately. In 2001, having come to Luxoft, I began to do testing, largely by the will of circumstances, I liked it. And so it remained in testing.

How and where did you learn about testing?
Two decades of experience in compliance testing is not bad. But at the same time, he did not study testing. Actually at that time they did not teach. Mastered everything only own experience and experience of colleagues. I started learning testing at Luxoft. Many thanks to the teachers, especially . They gave both theoretical and practical knowledge, recommended literature. I read books on testing (I would especially single out the book by S. Kaner, D. Falk, E.K. Nguyen “Testing software- read as a bestseller).

Is it possible to become a qualified tester only through self-learning?
No, I don't think so. You can study on your own theoretical basis testing. But without practice, it is dead knowledge. And practice is given only by work in projects, at least educational ones. And it is very important that there is an experienced trainer (mentor, curator) who will check, prompt and guide.

Often novice testers use such programs with intentionally made mistakes for self-learning purposes. Do you think this is enough? Is it possible to learn how to test software this way?
No. You can learn to find errors in the program yourself, but this does not mean “becoming a tester”. To become a qualified tester, one must understand the business process for which the product being tested is used. You also need to master the test design - according to books, without practice, you will not do this. The right way, in my opinion, is this: books, training with an experienced trainer, independent work supervised (supervised).

What knowledge should a tester have?
This is a very broad question. I will answer shortly enough. It is possible, I believe, to conditionally divide necessary knowledge into general and special. General is a development methodology software systems; testing methodology in various models developments; knowledge of database torii; Knowledge of the basics of test automation; knowledge of bug tracking systems; knowledge of the basics of test management; be at least a qualified computer user. Special knowledge - depends on the specifics, features of the project: knowledge of various operating systems, knowledge of the tools used.
Also, the tester should have a good knowledge of the development process (including the testing process) used in his organization.

What are the requirements for a tester in your industry?
In addition to general and specialized knowledge, perhaps even in the first place, an analytical mindset is needed. According to the requirements and the information that can be obtained from the analyst, the tester must have a good idea of ​​the business process, must imagine how the end user will work with the tested product (I'm talking about a qualified tester, of course). If a person is only able to simply check the program’s performance when entering values ​​into form fields, then this is still not a tester, even if he finds all the defects in the form. The tester should be able (and be ready) to quickly master new tools. The tester should be able to express his thoughts in writing, describe problems. Must be communicative and able to work in a team. And responsible - the flaws of the programmer can be found by the tester, the flaws of the tester - only the customer. The tester should be capable of fairly monotonous, routine work. Critical thinking is highly encouraged. And it's important to be able to take criticism.

Share interesting developments with "novice" testers, give examples from personal practice.
Here you can either write a lot or write briefly. I prefer the latter J. As a rule, our beginners do not have testing experience. In the best case, experience in maintaining or implementing systems (and, as a result, experience in describing problems). Therefore, we start by reading the literature on testing, studying the company's regulations. Along the way - trainings from (if they are in, if not, it happens that I myself conduct them for my own). Then work in a training project (if there is such an opportunity - this does not always happen). Then work as an understudy for a more experienced tester. A very good result is obtained when a beginner makes a summary table of the defects he found and missed, and then in the same table writes his assessment of the reasons why he missed the defect (for each missed defect).

What knowledge should a modern person have in modern world?

Age of development modern technologies takes a number of routine duties off our shoulders. Smart machines come to the rescue. What should a modern person know in order not to turn into a helpless lazy person? After all, in the absence of independent decisions in certain life situations, it makes each of us dependent on modern mechanisms.

20 things a modern person should know

Smart gadgets, computers, microwave ovens, washing machines… imagine that all this has disappeared. Consider what knowledge and skills a modern person should have:

1. Making decisions.
2. Creative thinking.
3. Analytic mind.
4. Communication skills.
5. Fast adaptability.
6. Self-education.
7. Memory development.
8. healthy image life.
9. Organization.
10. Self-development.
11. Know how to make a fire.
12. Know the basics of geography.
13. Use a map and compass.
14. Provide first aid.
15. Choose quality food.
16. Know how to cook food.
17. Use hammer and axe.
18. Fix things.
19. Know how to sew.
20. To swim.

As you can see, the list consists of two parts.

First part - necessary skills for personal development, the second - basic life skills. Let's consider each item in more detail.

Skills for the development of a person's personality

The development of the following principles will help to distinguish successful person from an ordinary individual.

• Making decisions. From the correctness of the decision that a person chooses in one or another life situation depends on its future. Important aspect- the decision must not only be made, but also implemented.
• Creative thinking. Such qualities as ingenuity and the ability to find new solutions to old problems will force a person to break their ingrained stereotypes.
• Analytic mind. The ability to use logic in the comprehensive analysis of certain information. With the development analytical warehouse mind, a person is able to find best option problem solving.
• Communication skills. The art of effective communication of a person with other individuals of society. Good communication skills allow you to successfully interact with the world and be understood by others.
• Fast adaptability. Adaptation of a person to the formed criteria and requirements of a separate group (for example, a school, a work team). Due to the rapid adaptability, a person easily enters into new team and adequately orientated in the new group.
• Self-education. Self-education allows you to get relevant knowledge that a person needs for further personal development. Helps to increase intellectual abilities and expand the circle of communication.
• The development of memory. A good memory allows you to achieve success in any field of activity. This quality is especially relevant in our information time, associated with huge flows of information.
• Healthy lifestyle. It is impossible to achieve success in life without good health. A healthy lifestyle is not only regular exercise in the morning, but also proper nutrition, regular sleep and maintenance of body hygiene.
• Organization. This item includes self-discipline, organization of the day and the ability to fulfill everything planned in advance. An organized person can effectively distribute his forces and get excellent results as a result.
• Self-development. Continuous development is the basis for the success of any person. Improving his skills, a person increases his intellectual potential, personal culture, will and mental capabilities.

Life skills.

Life skills will help you both in everyday life and in unusual situation :

• Ability to make fire. The light and warmth of a bonfire will help a tourist lost in the forest save his life.
• Know the basics of geography. People will consider you ignorant if you do not know what is outside your country.
• Use a map and compass. Once in an unknown area, these items will help you find the right path.
• Provide first aid. In order to treat an abrasion or apply a tourniquet to the hand, it is not necessary to have a medical degree.
• Choose quality food. These skills will help not only when choosing mushrooms and berries in the forest, but will also come in handy when visiting a local supermarket.
• To cook. Not knowing how to cook simple dishes, such as scrambled eggs, sooner or later you will find yourself in a ridiculous situation.
• Use hammer and axe. You don't have to be a carpenter to hammer a nail into a house. Basic ownership of these simple tools every man should.
• Fix things. The cost of repairing items is at least 30% of the value of the item itself. If you can do something yourself, you don't have to pay cash master.
• Know how to sew. Will allow the family to save on model studios.
• To swim. The surface of our planet is more than 70% water. Agree - this is a weighty argument in order to learn to swim.

Elemental things.

These things should be known not only by an adult, but also by a student. primary school schools. In life, there are different situations when the company is talking about elementary things, and you do not understand this issue. For example:

• There are 0.62 miles in one kilometer.
• There are 9 planets in the solar system.
• There are 6 continents on earth.
• The cheetah is the fastest animal.
• There are 251 countries in the world.
• The Sahara is the largest desert.

Humorous and interesting facts.

Information can be interesting not only from a scientific point of view, but also contain fun facts:

Here is some of them:

• When eating celery, a person spends more calories than he receives energy from this product.
• About half a year, an ordinary city dweller spends under a red traffic light.
• If no dye was added to Cola, its color would be green.
• Money is made from cotton, not paper.
• An adult laughs an average of 15 times a day, a small child - more than 300.

Now you know exactly what modern man needs to know. Of course, this is not the whole list. In order to become an erudite and interesting person for those around you, you need to read more than one hundred books and popular science articles.

about the knowledge of modern man

1-vopros.ru: a collection of answers to your questions.

More information

Today there will be a very important article, because in it I want to consider the main vital knowledge, skills, abilities which, in my opinion, every modern person should have. That is, something that will directly contribute to any business.

Now the world around us is completely different from what it was 30, 20 or even 10 years ago, therefore the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for life in it are also different.

The modern world does not stand still - it is developing rapidly. Therefore, in order to live well in these rapidly changing conditions, a person must also develop at the same pace. If its development lags behind, or if it does not exist at all, this will mean a movement backward relative to the surrounding conditions moving forward. Thus, the knowledge, skills and abilities of a person in the modern world should not only be relevant to the time, but also constantly develop and improve.

What, first of all, does a person need in the current conditions in order to live a normal, full life? The answer is banal and simple: money! It is money that plays the most important role in the life of absolutely any person: in fact, the achievement of almost any life goals directly or indirectly depends on money. And, more often than not, in the most direct way. To eat - a person needs money, to eat quality products - you need more money to dress - need money, to raise children - need money to rest - need money to buy, build or even rent much-needed housing - again need money.

We do not have communism, where in theory all this could be free, but capitalism (from the word “capital”). That is, even the name of the social system in which we live, as it were, hints at what is in it a fundamental factor for life.

So everything key knowledge, skills, skills necessary for life in the modern world, one way or another connected with the "extraction" of the resource that underlies it - money.

What knowledge, skills, abilities are needed to raise money? Previously, everything was simple: for this it was necessary to get an education and get a job. Those who did not have an education also got a job and earned a little less. But in any case, everyone had enough money to live normally.

Now everything has changed radically. Firstly, having an education does not guarantee a job, and, moreover, does not guarantee a job with good earnings sufficient for life. Plenty of research shows that very few people are satisfied with their jobs and salary believe that their salary is enough to live on. And the vast majority, even while working, actually live in poverty (and many even in huge debts!).

Secondly, education itself is now very expensive. And if we consider education as an investment, then its “payback period” often exceeds the period of study, that is, it ranges from 5 years and more. While people who did not go to study, but began to earn money by opening their own business, by this time they already have many times more earnings. Therefore, to the question of the need to obtain higher education now it is no longer possible to answer as unambiguously as 30 years ago: everything flows, everything changes.

And thirdly, due to the rapidly changing situation in any field of activity, higher education will not be able to provide knowledge that you will use to earn money for the rest of your life. Rather, on the contrary, as practice shows, it provides knowledge that is no longer relevant. At best, they have been irrelevant for 5 years, and at worst, for 20 years. The education system, unfortunately, does not really have time to change with the changing world, so in life, at best, 10% of what you were taught at the institute will come in handy, but it is more likely that nothing will be useful at all (it all depends on the specialty). But you will have a diploma, without which, according to many, “now nowhere” ...

AT modern conditions our education does not provide the knowledge, skills and abilities necessary for a person in life. Often he receives the knowledge that he can no longer apply anywhere because of their irrelevance, and therefore quickly forgets.

However, it cannot be argued that education is completely unnecessary. It gives some important skills (not knowledge, but skills!) It gives, and I will mention this a little later. The main conclusion from all this I want to draw the following:

Since education practically does not provide a person with vital knowledge, skills, and abilities, a person can only get them independently - through self-education.

Moreover, in many cases this can be done completely free of charge, or, in any case, not for such a huge amount of money, which will cost studying at the institute. And the benefits will be much greater.

Well, now let's move on to the most important thing: what knowledge, skills, abilities are vital in the modern world?

1. Computer work. The richest man of our time according to - Bill Gates at the end of the last century said: “whoever perfectly masters email will become a millionaire in the 21st century.” Of course, he is right, if this quote is not taken literally. In our era, computer technology is used literally everywhere, so it will be very difficult to achieve success in anything without sufficient and relevant knowledge, skills, and computer skills.

2. Sociability. In the modern world, it is extremely difficult and almost impossible to achieve any life goals alone. You constantly have to communicate with other people: employers, subordinates, colleagues, partners, clients, officials, etc. And the success of the business you are doing largely depends on how competently and effectively this communication takes place. Including . Therefore, well-developed communication skills and abilities can be classified as vital.

3. Self-development. To achieve success in any business, it is necessary to be a person, that is, to stand out from the general mass of people, to have some individual knowledge, skills, abilities. To do this, you need to do: set yourself goals, strive to achieve them, conduct introspection and improve yourself in all directions.

4. financial literacy. As you remember, money is one of the critical factors achieving any goal. Therefore, each person must be financially literate: to know how to earn money in different ways, how to spend it correctly, how to account for and distribute it, how to save and increase money, that is, everything that includes the concept.

5. The ability to learn. And finally, the most necessary skills that I left in the end is the ability to learn. It was not in vain that I paid so much attention at the beginning of the article to the fact that the modern world is changing and developing very quickly, and any, even the latest, knowledge gained very quickly becomes irrelevant. Based on this, in order to achieve life goals, a modern person must constantly be in the process of learning: to study new legislation, new work technologies, new earning opportunities, etc.

And it is precisely the skills and abilities to learn that you can get at the institute, which, in my opinion, is much more important than the knowledge that it gives. Because knowledge will quickly become obsolete, but the ability to learn will always be necessary. And this is the benefit that can be derived from higher education today.

These 5 listed skills and abilities I consider to be the main vital ones today. It is their presence and constant development that will help a person earn money - a resource without which it is impossible to provide yourself and your loved ones with a decent life.

And, what is most interesting, you will have to develop this knowledge, skills and abilities in yourself mostly on your own, because you will not be taught this anywhere, and even if they teach you, the knowledge will quickly become obsolete.

The site is one of those resources that give you the opportunity to get this necessary knowledge and skills for free. In addition, you can receive and improve knowledge from books, other Internet resources, seminars and trainings. All you need is the desire to develop and actions in this direction. Remember that no one will give you these vital knowledge, skills and abilities until you yourself want to receive them.

Therefore, I am always glad to see each of you among the regular readers of the site, active commentators and forum participants. If you have additions or objections, your opinion about what knowledge, skills and abilities are vital in the modern world, I will be glad to hear them in the comments. If you find this information helpful, please share the link with your friends. in social networks and on the forums where you communicate. Until we meet again!

About knowledge

Knowledge is important, but not critical, in my opinion. First, I am sure that everything can be learned in practice. You can read something in books, on the forum, and, in the end, watch someone's video course. So if you don't know about financial market, that is, there is no profile education - this is not critical. Of course, if you are going to analyze fundamental factors, then an economic education would be very useful to you.

I will give my example. When I started looking into options on commodity markets a lot was easy for me. I could easily assess the influence of certain factors on the market, because it was not a problem for me to build a chain of inter-industry relations, because I was taught this at the university. But, of course, not only this. For example, did you know that Americans are moving away from beef in favor of cheaper pork and chicken when gas prices rise? And for me at first it was not entirely obvious, but then I figured it out. Lower consumption means lower demand, which means lower prices for Live Cattle.

But, if you, for example, trade in Forex or the stock market and use only technical analysis, then it would be better to have mathematical education or engineering. It is much easier for a techie to track patterns. He is already used to them, and you can figure out which indicator means what, on your own.

The conclusion here is that you need to have knowledge about the markets in which you trade. But with certain trading styles, the lack of this knowledge will not affect your result as much as other factors. In other words, you can trade successfully even without a higher education, but if you have one, it definitely won’t get any worse.

About skills

Here you can talk and write for a very long time. But let me try to structure.

1. Advanced computer skills.

It is very important. Now almost all transactions go through the Internet. If a trader does not know how to use a computer or the Internet, what kind of trader is this. Yes, I had to make deals, including by phone. But this is rather an exception to the rule. After all, this was due to problems in the trading platform, in particular, the margin limit, which in practice should not have been. I opened cotton futures, which were supposed to balance my option position in this market, and the margin should have decreased. The next day it was in the report.

And the second point, how to analyze the market if you do not know how to use the trading platform (or analysis platform)? Some trading platforms are quite complex and you need to be an experienced PC user to figure it out. By the way, Metatrader 4 is very simple compared to them. With him, everything is much easier.

The third point is communication with other traders on the Internet. This is also important. Often a smart thought is not one's own. Personally, I often use other people's ideas in trading. Now, of course, mostly our own, but there were times when we took and remade other people's trading robots or simply borrowed some ideas from them.

2. At least minimal knowledge of English.

I think that English language trader needs, although I suspect that many will not agree with me. Why does a trader need English, who, for example, trades on the Russian stock market and uses a platform in Russian? Still needed! Markets are constantly changing, there are some new ideas, techniques, and the platforms themselves. Usually all this appears in the West and is available to us only in English. Therefore, in order not to wait for a translation, it is better to be able to find and research such materials yourself.

Well, for those who trade in the American market, English is a must. This does not mean that those who do not speak English well cannot trade there. They can, but they need to know some basic concepts. For example, as aircraft pilots (those for whom English is not native). In ordinary life, they speak English rather poorly, but in the cockpit I know all the terminology, and, moreover, they can easily find a common language with the dispatcher.

And, by the way, again about transactions by phone. I had to call and speak to the broker in English. However, this rarely happens.

3. Discipline.

This is a very important skill. An impulsive person is unlikely to become a good trader. If psychology influences your trading decisions, then, believe me, your results will at least worsen, if not, you will receive only losses.

You can often hear such words as “Fix losses and let profits run”. All this is good and, probably, generally correct. But I really want to fix the profit, albeit a small one. And when you have a floating loss, I would like to hope that it will decrease, and the price is about to go in the direction you need.

I experienced it first hand. At one point, psychology began to influence my decisions to close and open positions. And then I decided to just stop trading for 1-2 months.

Therefore, I can say that in order for your trading system to remain stable, you need to make the same decisions that you made before. If you notice that something is not right, then it's time to think

4. Analytical skills.

In principle, this can be learned. The main thing here is to have the patience to analyze the situation from beginning to end. For example, you notice some kind of pattern, and the next time it happens, you expect the market to react in one way or another. That is, each time you have several scenarios in your head, what will you do if the price is there or there. And more importantly, you must have these scripts before you open a position. That is, it is some trading plan. You cannot open a position if you do not have it.

What else should a trader have?

Perhaps it's all about skills. But what else should a trader have. Firstly, this is the initial deposit, and it depends on which market you are going to trade. If this is the Russian stock market, then you need at least 50,000 rubles. If Forex, it is desirable to have at least 2-3 thousand dollars. If the American market of options and futures, then 5-20 thousand dollars.

Second, it's time. A trader should have enough time to devote to trading. It is absolutely not necessary to be an intraday trader, you can trade in the medium term, but this does not mean that you can trade according to the principle “when free time". Often, good entry opportunities come at inconvenient times for you, and this should also be taken into account.

Thirdly, learning to trade (on your own or by watching courses) can take years, and you will not necessarily become a profitable trader, even if you are taught by a "Great Guru".

Fourth, the attitude of a person to business. It is not bad at first to combine trading with some kind of work, so that there is something to live on, and so that psychology does not affect trading decisions. But in any case, trading should be taken seriously as a profession. This is the only way to achieve success!

The most complete list of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of a clinical (medical) psychologist can be gleaned from the qualification characteristics of a specialist in this field. In accordance with the order of the Ministry of Health of the Russian Federation No. 391 dated November 26, 1996, a medical psychologist must have the following knowledge and skills:

Theoretical knowledge

Psychology and its significance for medicine: the subject, tasks and interdisciplinary connections of medical psychology, the history of the formation of medical psychology as a field of psychological science; medical psychology as a profession; main sections of medical psychology.

The main theoretical and methodological problems of medical psychology: brain and psyche, psychosomatic and somatopsychic correlations. Biological and social correlations, the problem of norm and pathology, genetic and acquired, hereditary and personal-environmental, development and decay of the psyche, organic and functional, conscious and unconscious, adaptation and maladjustment, deficit and adaptive.

Systems approach as a theoretical basis for understanding the psychological structure of the disease, restorative treatment and rehabilitation of patients.

Basic (fundamental) medical concepts: etiology, pathogenesis and sanogenesis, symptom, syndrome, clinical diagnosis, functional (multidimensional or multiaxial) diagnosis.

Related knowledge: fundamentals of general and private psychiatry, fundamentals of neurology, the doctrine of borderline mental disorders, self-destructive behavior, fundamentals of psychophysiology and psychopharmacology.

Psychological (psychogenic) factors in the etiology, pathogenesis and pathoplasty of mental and psychosomatic disorders, the concept of pre-illness, impaired mental adaptation, social stress disorders, crisis conditions.

Classification of methods of medical psychology, psychological diagnostics as a tool for purposeful study of personality, methods of psychological diagnostics in the clinic, computer psychodiagnostics, psychological correction.

The concept of psychological diagnosis, functional diagnosis as a result of the integration of the clinical, psychological and social aspects of the disease, the concept of psychological contact.

The main categories of medical psychology: mental activity, perception, attention, memory, thinking, intellect, emotions, will, temperament, character, personality, motivation, needs, stress, frustration, consciousness and self-awareness, self-esteem, conflict, crisis, psychogenesis, psychological protection, coping, alexithymia.

Theory of experiment, concepts of standardized and non-standardized methods, theory and classification of tests, basic psychometric concepts (validity, reliability, standardization, norm, etc.).

Fundamentals of Clinical Neuropsychology: systemic mechanisms of the brain in the organization of higher mental functions, processes and states, functional specialization of the hemispheres - basic concepts and practice, correlations of the general cerebral and local in neuropsychology, nosological specifics of violations of higher mental functions, specifics of neuropsychological research in childhood; main neuropsychological syndromes and methods of their diagnostics.

The concept of pathopsychology: ratio of qualitative and quantitative approaches in the analysis of psychodiagnostic data, pathopsychological phenomenology, regularities and structural features of disorders of cognitive processes, properties and conditions caused by the disease, nosological and syndromological specificity of pathopsychological phenomenology, differential diagnostic and expert significance of pathopsychological experiment, pathopsychological studies in assessing the dynamics of treatment .

Age aspects of psychological disorders: age-related features of psychological disorders in various diseases, mental development of an abnormal child, childhood autism, the problem of dysontogenesis and mental retardation, psychological anomalies of adolescence, features of childhood and adolescent forms of pathological response, psychological aspects of mental infantilism, psychological problems of geriatrics and gerontology.

Teaching about character: the concept of accentuation and psychopathy, classification of character accentuations, diagnostic methods.

The doctrine of personality: basic concepts of personality in domestic and foreign psychology, diagnostic methods, the concept of personality defense mechanisms, personality and disease.

Basic concepts of psychosomatic relationships. Psychosomatic and somatopsychic. Internal picture of the disease and attitude to the disease, methodology and research methods, nosological specificity of psychological phenomena and the internal picture of the disease. Theoretical and methodological aspects, methods of psychological diagnostics in various types of expertise.

Theoretical, methodological and methodological approaches in solving the problems of psychoprophylaxis and psychohygiene, the concept of mass research, psychological screening, risk factors, mental maladjustment and illness.

Rehabilitation approach in medicine: concept, concepts, basic principles, forms and methods.

Psychology of extreme and crisis states, the concept of traumatic stress, social frustration and social stress disorders.

Basic principles of psychological support medical process: organization of the psychotherapeutic environment in the medical units. Relationships doctor-patient, psychologist-doctor-treatment office, etc.

Psychological aspects of drug and non-drug therapy, placebo effect, psychological problems of preparing patients for surgery, prosthetics, psychological problems of chronically ill, disabled and dying.

Medical and psychological aspects of social behavior: communication, role behavior, interaction in groups, social normativity, etc.

Features of the work of medical psychologists in stationary, outpatient and preventive institutions of various types, psychological counseling, professional selection, career guidance.

Psychological foundations of psychotherapy, restorative education and rehabilitation.

Basic psychotherapeutic theories: psychodynamic, behavioral, existential-humanistic; personality-oriented psychotherapy; medical and psychological models of psychotherapy; main forms of psychotherapy: individual group, family, environment therapy, psychotherapeutic community, sociotherapy; mechanisms of therapeutic action of psychotherapy; nosological specificity and age aspects of psychotherapy and psychological counseling; psychological problems of non-verbal methods of psychotherapy: music therapy, choreotherapy, art therapy, etc.

Psychotherapy and psychological counseling in crisis conditions.

Legal aspects activities of medical psychologists.

Deontological aspects behavior of a medical psychologist.

Practical skills

The practical skills and abilities of a medical psychologist should provide a qualified professional solution to problems in the field of psychodiagnostics (including expert), psychocorrection and psychological counseling.

In the field of psychodiagnostics:

The ability to conduct a psychological examination, taking into account nosological and age specifics, as well as in connection with the tasks of medical and psychological examination; creation of the necessary psychological contact and adequate current control of psychological distance; planning and organization of research; selection of an adequate methodological apparatus; the ability to carry out a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the results of the study in connection with various goals: differential diagnosis, analysis of the severity of the condition, evaluation of the effectiveness of the therapy, etc., possession of the main interpretive schemes and approaches, adequate presentation of the available data in the psychodiagnostic report, possession of the main clinical and psychological methods (psychological conversation, collection of psychological anamnesis, psychological analysis of biography, natural experiment);

Possession of the main experimental psychological methods aimed at studying mental functions, processes and states: perception, attention, memory, thinking, intellect, emotional-volitional sphere, temperament, character, personality, motivational characteristics and needs, self-awareness and interpersonal relationships;

Possession of the basic techniques of neuropsychological research (methods for assessing the state of gnosis, praxis, speech functions, etc.);

Basic knowledge of computer diagnostics.

In the field of psychological counseling and the use of psycho-corrective methods:

The use of the main methods of psychological correction (individual, family, group) in working with patients and psychological counseling, taking into account nosological and age specifics;

Possession of methods of individual, group and family counseling of healthy people, taking into account age specifics in connection with the tasks of psychoprophylaxis;

Possession of the basic techniques of restorative education;

Possession of approaches to the organization of the psychotherapeutic environment and the psychotherapeutic community;

- Possession of the skills to conduct personally and professionally oriented trainings.

Thus, a clinical psychologist can help both sick and healthy people in solving psychological problems.

Ethics in clinical psychology. http://bookap.info/genpsy/clinpsy/gl23.shtm

The professional activity of a clinical psychologist is integrated into all major areas of medical science and practice. The origins of clinical psychology and its development as a specialty are inextricably linked with medicine, especially psychiatry and psychotherapy. Therefore, turning to the ethical aspects of this relatively young specialty, one cannot help but dwell on modern models of medical ethics.

For more than 25 centuries, various moral principles and rules have been formed in European culture, which have accompanied the centuries-old existence of medicine. Various moral regulators that functioned at different stages of the development of society - religious, cultural, ethnic, socio-economic - influenced the formation of ethical models in medicine as well. Considering all the variety of medical moral experience, 4 coexisting models can be distinguished:

1. Model of Hippocrates (principle "do no harm").

2. Model of Paracelsus (principle "do good").

3. Deontological model (principle of "observance of duty").

4. Bioethics (the principle of "respect for the rights and dignity of the individual").

The historical features and logical foundations of each of the models determined the formation of those moral principles that today constitute the value-normative content of modern biomedical ethics.

Hippocratic model. First form medical ethics were the moral principles of healing Hippocrates (460-377 BC), set forth by him in the "Oath", as well as in the books "On the Law", "On Doctors", "On Decent Behavior", "Instructions", etc. In ancient cultures - Babylonian, Egyptian, Jewish, Persian, Indian, Greek - the ability to heal testified to the "divine" chosenness and determined the elite, as a rule, priestly position in society. It is believed that Hippocrates was the son of one of the priests of the god Asclepius - Heraclid, who gave him his initial medical education. The formation of secular medicine in Ancient Greece is associated with the principles of democracy of city-states, and the consecrated rights of healing priests inevitably gave way to moral professional guarantees and obligations of doctors to the suffering. In addition, the ethics of Hippocrates, which is well illustrated by the "Oath", was caused by the need to dissociate themselves from lone doctors, various charlatans, of which there were many in those days, and to ensure public confidence in the doctors of a particular school or corporation of Asclepiads.

The practical attitude of a doctor to a sick and healthy person, initially focused on care, help, support, is the main feature of professional medical ethics. That part of medical ethics that considers the problem of the relationship between the doctor and the patient from the point of view of social guarantees and professional commitment of the medical community, can be called the "Hippocratic model". It was about obligations to teachers, colleagues and students, about guarantees of non-harm ("I will direct the regimen of patients to their benefit in accordance with my strength and my understanding, refraining from any harm and injustice"), providing assistance, showing respect, about a negative attitude to murder and euthanasia ("I will not give any lethal agent asked of me and will not show the way for such a plan"), abortion ("I will not give any woman an abortion pessary"), the refusal of intimate relations with patients ("In whatever I didn’t enter the house, I will enter there for the benefit of the patient, being far from everything intentional, unrighteous and pernicious, especially from love affairs with women and men, free and slaves”, “The doctor has a lot of relations with the sick: after all, they put themselves at the disposal doctors, and doctors at all times deal with women, with girls and with property of a very high price, therefore, in relation to all this, the doctor must be abstinent"), about medical secrecy ("Whatever and treatment - and also without treatment, I have not heard about human life from what should never be divulged, I will keep silent about that, considering such things a secret").

Fundamental among the listed principles for the Hippocratic model is the principle of "do no harm", which focuses on the civil creed of the medical class. This principle forms the initial professional guarantee, which can be considered as a condition and basis for its recognition by society as a whole and by each person separately, who trusts the doctor with his health and life. Hippocrates paid much attention to the appearance of a doctor, not only moral, but also external (clothing, neatness) respectability, which was associated with the need to build confidence in those who turn to the medical caste during the transition from priestly to secular medicine. Priests, throughout the history of the development of religion, acquired the status of those close to the gods, it was believed that they received wisdom and instructions, knowledge and skills from them. Physicians, who had overcome the temple, had to acquire and possess such qualities that would contribute to the formation of the image of the entire medical professional community of that time. Hippocrates defined these qualities, starting from the generalized values ​​of ancient Greece. The book "On Decent Behavior" most fully reflects the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bthe ideal of a doctor that developed in the bowels of medical schools in the era of the Greek "enlightenment": "What are they appearance, are such in reality: the physician-philosopher is equal to God.

Hippocrates defined the general rules for the interaction of a doctor with a patient, while the emphasis was on the behavior of the doctor at the patient's bedside. When in contact with the patient, such a form of communication was offered that would help the patient's orientation towards recovery: "An obvious and great proof of the existence of art will be if someone, establishing the correct treatment, does not stop encouraging the patients so that they are not too worried in spirit, trying to bring time closer to themselves convalescence."

important and difficult in ethical There was a question about the remuneration of the doctor for the assistance and treatment provided. Under the conditions of priestly medicine, gifts and offerings were given not to the priest himself, but to the temple in which he served. In the transition to secular medicine, when the doctor is directly provided with a fee, appropriate rules were needed that did not violate the general architectonics of medical ethics: "It is better to reproach the saved than rob those in danger in advance."

Paracelsus model. The second historical form of medical ethics was the understanding of the relationship between the doctor and the patient, which developed in the Middle Ages. Paracelsus (1493-1541) succeeded in expressing it especially clearly. This form of medical ethics, in which the moral relationship with the patient is understood as a component of the doctor's strategy of therapeutic behavior. If the Hippocratic model wins the social trust of the patient's personality, then the "Paracelsian model" is taking into account the individual characteristics of the individual, recognizing the depth of her spiritual contacts with the doctor and the inclusion of these contacts in the treatment process. "In Paracelsus we see the forefather not only in the field of chemical drugs, but also in the field of empirical mental treatment" (Jung). Within the boundaries of the "Paracelsian model", paternalism is fully developed as a type of relationship between a doctor and a patient. Medical culture uses the Latin concept of pater - "father", extended by Christianity not only to the priest, but also to God. The meaning of the word "father" in paternalism fixes that the "model" of the relationship between the doctor and the patient is not only blood relations, which are characterized by positive psycho-emotional attachments and social and moral responsibility, but also the "healing", "divinity" of the very contact between the doctor and the patient . It is not surprising that the main moral principle that is formed within the boundaries of this model is the principle of "do good", good, or "do love", beneficence, mercy. Medicine is the organized exercise of goodness. Paracelsus wrote: "The strength of the doctor is in his heart, his work must be guided by God and illuminated by natural light and experience; the most important basis of medicine is love." Under the influence of Christian anthropology, Paracelsus considered the physical body of a person "only as a house in which the true man, the builder of this house, lives." It is believed that the Christian understanding of the soul contributed to the development of suggestive therapy, which was actively used by the outstanding physician of the 16th century. Cardano, considering it as a necessary and effective component of any therapeutic effect. Cardano understood the role of the trust factor and argued that the success of treatment is largely determined by the patient's faith in the doctor: "He who believes more, heals better." The importance of a trusting relationship between a doctor and a patient was repeatedly emphasized by prominent doctors of the past, as early as the 8th century. Abul-Faraj wrote: "There are three of us - you, the disease and I; if you are with the disease, there will be two of you, I will remain alone - you will overcome me; if you are with me, there will be two of us, the disease will remain one - we we will overcome it."

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. Freud desacralized paternalism, stating the libidinal nature of the relationship between doctor and patient. His concepts of transference and countertransference are a means of theoretical understanding of the complex interpersonal relationship between doctor and patient in psychotherapeutic practice. Freud believed that any psychotherapist, and the activity of a doctor of any specialty includes a psychotherapeutic component, "should be impeccable, especially in moral terms." Freud wrote not only about "impeccability" as a theoretically adjusted strategy of therapeutic behavior based on the nature of therapeutic activity, but also about "impeccability" as an almost mechanical accuracy of compliance of the doctor's behavior with one or another standard of ethical requirements.

deontological model. For the first time, the term "deontology" ("deontos" - due, "logos" - teaching) was introduced by the English philosopher Bentham (1748-1832), designating this concept as the science of duty, moral duty, moral perfection and impeccability. Deontology is especially important in those professional activities where complex interpersonal mutual influences and responsible interactions are widely used. In medicine, this is the compliance of the doctor's behavior with certain ethical standards. This is the deontological level of medical ethics, or "deontological model", based on the principle of "observance of duty". The basis of deontology is the attitude towards the patient in the way that one would like to be treated in a similar situation. The deep essence of the deontology of healing is revealed by the symbolic statement of the Dutch doctor of the 17th century. van Toul-Psi: "Shining to others, I burn myself."

The term "deontology" was introduced into Soviet medical science in the 1940s. Petrov to designate a real-life area of ​​medical practice - medical ethics - which was "abolished" in Russia after the 1917 revolution for its connection with religious culture. The deontological model of medical ethics is a set of "proper" rules (comparison, compliance with the "proper" and the implementation of an assessment of the action not only by results, but also by thoughts), corresponding to a particular area of ​​medical practice. Deontology includes issues of compliance with medical secrecy, measures of responsibility for the life and health of patients, problems of relationships in the medical community, relationships with patients and their relatives. Thus, an example of this model is the rules regarding intimate relationships between a doctor and a patient, developed by the Committee on Ethical and legal matters at the American Medical Association (JAMA, 1992, no. 2):

Intimate contacts between the doctor and the patient that occur during the period of treatment are immoral;

An intimate relationship with a former patient may be considered unethical in certain situations;

The issue of intimacy between physician and patient should be included in the training of all health professionals;

Physicians should certainly report violations of medical ethics by their colleagues.

To "observe duty" means to fulfill certain requirements. An improper act is one that contradicts the requirements of the medical community, society, one's own will and mind for a doctor. When the rules of conduct are open and clearly defined for each medical specialty, the principle of "doing duty" does not recognize excuses for avoiding doing it. The idea of ​​duty is the defining, necessary and sufficient basis for the doctor's actions. If a person is able to act on the unconditional demand of "duty", then such a person corresponds to his chosen profession, if not, then he must leave this professional community.

Sets of "well-defined rules of conduct" have been developed for virtually every medical specialty and provide a list and description of these rules for all medical fields. By the middle of the XX century. medical deontology becomes international - international documents appear that regulate the behavior of a doctor: the Geneva Declaration (1948), the International Code of Medical Ethics (London, 1949), the Helsinki Declaration (1964), the Tokyo Declaration (1975), etc.

Bioethics. In the 60-70s. 20th century a new model of medical ethics is being formed, which considers medicine in the context of human rights. The term "bioethics" (ethics of life), which was proposed by Van Renseller Potter in 1969, which is described as "the systematic study of human behavior in the field of life and health sciences, to the extent that this behavior is considered in the light of moral values ​​and principles ". The main moral principle of bioethics is the principle of "respect for the rights and dignity of the individual." Under the influence of this principle, the solution of the "basic issue" of medical ethics - the question of the relationship between the doctor and the patient - is changing. Today, the question of the participation of the patient in making a medical decision is acute. This far from "secondary" participation takes shape in new types of relationship between the doctor and the patient - informational, deliberative, interpretive types are, in their own way, a form of protecting the rights and dignity of a person. In modern medicine, they discuss not only helping the sick, but also the possibilities of controlling the processes of pathology, conception and dying, with very problematic physical and metaphysical (moral) consequences for the human population as a whole. Medicine, working today at the molecular level, is becoming more "predictive". Dosset (French immunologist and geneticist) believes that predictive medicine "will help to make a person's life long, happy and devoid of disease." Only one "but" stands in the way of this bright prospect: "a person or a group of persons driven by a thirst for power and often infected with a totalitarian ideology." Predictive medicine can also be defined as subjectless, impersonal, that is, capable of diagnosing without subjective indicators, complaints and the patient. And this is really a real and unprecedented lever of control and power over both the individual human organism and the human population as a whole.

Bioethics is a modern form of traditional professional biomedical ethics, in which the regulation of human relations is subordinated to the super-task of preserving the life of the human race. The regulation of relations with the super-task of saving life is directly related to the very essence and purpose of morality in general. Today, the "ethical" is becoming a form of defense of the "natural-biological" from the excessive claims of culture to its natural foundations. Bioethics (ethics of life) as a specific form of "ethical" arises from the need of nature to protect itself from the power of culture in the face of its extreme claims to transform and change the "natural-biological".

Since the 60-70s. XX century, as an alternative to paternalism, an autonomous model is becoming more widespread, when the patient reserves the right to make decisions related to his health and medical treatment. In this case, the doctor and patient jointly develop a strategy and methods of treatment. The physician applies his or her medical experience and provides clarification regarding treatment prognosis, including the alternative of no treatment; the patient, knowing his goals and values, determines the option that best suits his interests and plans for the future. Thus, instead of the paternalistic model of protecting and saving the patient's life, the principle of the patient's well-being, which is implemented by the doctrine of informed consent, is now coming to the fore - the patient's self-determination depends on the degree of his awareness. The doctor is obliged to provide the patient not only with all the information of interest to him, but also with that which, due to his incompetence, the patient may not be aware of. At the same time, the patient's decisions are voluntary and correspond to his own values. From this follows the moral core of the relationship "doctor-patient" in bioethics - the principle of respect for the individual. The question of determining the beginning and end of life is also of great importance. The conflict of "rights", "principles", "values", and in fact of human lives and the fate of culture is a reality modern society. The conflict between the "right of the fetus to life" and "the right of a woman to have an abortion", or the legal consciousness of the patient, rising to the realization of the "right to a dignified death", which conflicts with the doctor's right to perform not only professional rule"Do not harm", but the commandment - "Thou shalt not kill." With regard to abortion as the destruction of what can become a person, there are three moral positions: conservative - abortion is always immoral and can only be allowed if a woman's life is threatened; liberal - moderate - the absolute right of a woman to have an abortion, regardless of the age of the fetus and moderate - the justification of abortion before a certain development of the embryo (until the stage of the developing fetus - 12 weeks, when the brain tissue becomes electrically active).

Brain activity also serves as a criterion for death. Modern intensive care is able to support the life of patients who are not capable of either spontaneous breathing or thought processes. Therefore, there are new moral problems associated with patients who are on the verge of life and death. The question of euthanasia usually arises when the patient has irreversibly lost consciousness; dying, experiences intense unbearable suffering, forcing physicians to maintain the patient in a semi-conscious state or when the newborn has anatomical and physiological defects that are incompatible with life. There is a wide range of opinions: from the full legalization of the doctor's right to terminate the patient's life with his consent ("active euthanasia"), to the complete rejection of euthanasia as an act contrary to human morality. There is a variant of the so-called "passive euthanasia", when the principle of non-treatment is used, which excludes the act of killing itself (switching off artificial systems that ensure life, stopping the administration of drugs, etc.).

The ethical issues of abortion and euthanasia are related to the moral aspects of reproduction and transplantation. The modern technology of reproduction of life determines qualitatively new forms of relationships between spouses, parents and children, biological and social parents. Transplantology opens up new problems of determining the line between life and death due to the moral alternative of saving the life of the recipient and the responsibility for the possible murder of a donor doomed to death.

In the 90s. 20th century bioethics has become a concept that includes the whole set of social and ethical problems of modern medicine, among which one of the leading problems is the social protection of the human right not only to self-determination, but also to life. Bioethics plays an important role in shaping society's respect for human rights.

Yudin believes that "bioethics should be understood not only as a field of knowledge, but also as an emerging social institution of modern society" . A specific form of resolving possible contradictions in the field of biomedicine are bioethical public organizations (ethical committees), which unite physicians, lawyers, bioethicists, priests, etc., and provide recommendations on specific problematic situations of biomedical activity, whether it be its theoretical or practical side. .

Historical and logical analysis of the development of the ethics of healing leads to the following conclusion. The modern form of medical ethics is biomedical ethics, which now operates in the mode of all four historical models - the Hippocratic and Paracelsian models, the deontological model and bioethics. The connection between scientific and practical activity and morality is one of the conditions for the existence and survival of modern civilization.

Modern clinical psychology in all its sections is based on general medical ethical principles. At the same time, a clinical psychologist in his work faces specific ethical issues.

Firstly, this is the question of the need to inform the subject about the goals and content of the psychological examination before it is carried out. The clinical psychologist is obliged to maintain confidentiality when discussing the results of the study, to obtain the consent of the patient if it is expedient to familiarize himself with the results of other specialists, in addition to the attending physician, to show correctness when conducting the study or in case of refusal of the latter.

Secondly, the rule of "limits" (the limit as the limit of acceptable behavior) must be respected. Given the specifics of interpersonal interaction between a clinical psychologist and a patient, it is necessary to clearly define the professional boundaries of communication during psychological counseling and during psychotherapeutic meetings, since "crossing" the boundary can lead to the destruction of the treatment process and harm the patient. The range of violation of the boundaries of professional interaction is very wide: from sexual contact with the patient to advice, recommendations and questions that go beyond the scope of therapeutic contact. For example, during the reception, the patient's condition worsened, he was provided with the necessary medical care. Worried about what happened, the psychologist calls him at home in the evening to find out about his health. The patient considered this a violation of "borders" and an encroachment on his autonomy (autonomy is defined as "personal freedom" or as "the principle of free will"). However, under certain circumstances, "violation of boundaries" can be constructive, so it is important to take into account the context of the interaction. So, the patient, entering the office of a clinical psychologist and reporting the death of her son, bends over to the chest of the psychologist, and the latter responds to this impulse of hers, thereby expressing sympathy for the grief of the patient. Failure to show empathic empathy in such situations is more likely to alienate the patient and interrupt interpersonal interaction. "Breach of boundaries" also occurs when the patient is attempted to be used for personal purposes of a non-sexual nature.

Thirdly, difficult ethical issue may be the formation of the patient's emotional attachment to the clinical psychologist, which is one of the characteristics of professional interpersonal interaction. This form of attachment is often the basis for containing the affective disturbances that accompany illness. However, attachment, turning into dependence, causes negative reactions in the patient, leading to destructive forms of behavior. Therefore, the clinical psychologist must carefully monitor the interaction with the patient, being aware of his professional actions, so that emotional support does not interfere with providing the patient with the means to independently cope with difficulties and achieve his life goals.

It must be emphasized that interest in bioethics in recent decades will urgently require further development of the ethical foundations of modern clinical psychology.

The subject and structure of clinical psychology. Definitions of clinical psychologyhttp:// rudocs. exdat. com/ docs/ index-445265. html? page=2

Clinical psychology is a wide-profile specialty that has an intersectoral character and is involved in solving a complex of problems; health care system, public education and social assistance to the population. object clinical psychology is a person with difficulties in adaptation and self-realization associated with his physical, social and spiritual condition. Clinical psychology is a branch of psychology subject the study of which are:

disorders (disorders) of the psyche and behavior;

personal and behavioral characteristics of people suffering from various diseases;

the impact of psychological factors on the occurrence, development and treatment of diseases;

features of the relationship of sick people and the social microenvironment in which they are.

In a broader sense, clinical psychology can be understood as the application of the entire body of psychological knowledge to the solution of a wide variety of issues and problems that arise in medical practice. In a narrower sense, clinical psychology is a special methodology of psychological research, which is based on the method of observing a relatively small number of patients in natural conditions and subsequent subjective analysis-interpretation of individual manifestations of their psyche and personality. In this sense, clinical and psychological methodology fundamentally opposes the natural-science experimental approach, based on the criteria of "objective" (statistically reliable) psychological knowledge. Clinical psychology refers to an interdisciplinary field of scientific knowledge and practice, in which the interests of physicians and psychologists intersect. Based on the problems that this discipline resolves (the mutual influence of the mental and somatic in the occurrence, course and treatment of diseases), and the practical tasks that are set before it (diagnosis of mental disorders, distinguishing between individual psychological characteristics and mental disorders, analysis of the conditions and factors for the occurrence of disorders and diseases, psychoprophylaxis, psychotherapy, psychosocial rehabilitation of patients, protection and maintenance of health), then it is a branch of medical science. However, if we proceed from the theoretical premises and research methods, this is a psychological science. Modern clinical psychology as a discipline that studies various disorders of the psyche and behavior by psychological methods can be used not only in medicine, but also in various educational, social and advisory institutions serving people with developmental anomalies and psychological problems. In pedagogical practice, clinical and psychological knowledge makes it possible to recognize mental development disorders or deviations in behavior in a child in time, which in turn makes it possible to selectively and effectively apply adequate education technologies, psychological and pedagogical correction in relations with him and create optimal conditions for the development of his personality. taking into account individual features. As an independent branch of psychological science in relation to pedagogical practice, modern clinical psychology has the following tasks:

study of the influence of psychological and psychosocial factors on the development of behavioral and personality disorders in a child, their prevention and correction;

study of the influence of deviations and disorders in mental and somatic development on the personality and behavior of the child;

study of the specifics and nature of disorders in the development of the child's psyche;

study of the nature of the relationship of the abnormal child with the immediate environment;

development of principles and methods of clinical and psychological research for pedagogical purposes;

creation and study of psychological methods of influencing the child's psyche for corrective and preventive purposes.

^ Main Sections clinical psychology are: pathopsychology, neuropsychology and psychosomatic medicine. In addition, it often includes such special sections as psychotherapy, rehabilitation, psychohygiene and psychoprophylaxis, the psychology of deviant behavior, the psychology of borderline mental disorders (neurosis). The number of special sections is constantly multiplying depending on the needs of society. And today you can find such private areas of clinical psychology as the psychology of post-traumatic stress, the psychology of disability, psychovenereology, psycho-oncology, social psychology of health, etc. Clinical psychology is closely related to such disciplines as psychiatry, psychopathology, neurology, psychopharmacology, physiology of higher nervous activity, psychophysiology, valeology, general psychology, psychodiagnostics, special psychology and pedagogy. The area of ​​intersection of scientific and practical interest of clinical psychology and psychiatry is diagnostics. Recall that historically clinical psychology originated in the depths of psychiatry as an auxiliary diagnostic tool. The psychiatrist focuses on the recognition of pathological organic processes that cause mental disorders, as well as on the pharmacological effect on these processes and on the prevention of their occurrence. Psychiatry pays little attention to how mental processes proceed normally, in healthy people. The process of diagnosing mental disorders, on the one hand, involves the separation of the actual disorders caused by organic disorders and individual personality traits, and on the other hand, the diagnosis of mental disorders requires confirmation of the presence of psychological disorders in a person, which is done with the help of pathopsychological and neuropsychological experiments, and also through various psychological tests (tests). The overlapping subject matter of psychiatry and clinical psychology is mental disorders. However, clinical psychology also deals with disorders that are not diseases (the so-called "borderline mental disorders"). In fact, modern psychiatry and clinical psychology differ not in the subject, but in the point of view on the same subject: psychiatry focuses on the morpho-functional (somatic) side of a mental disorder, while clinical psychology focuses on the specifics of the psychological reality that occurs in mental disorders . The connection between clinical psychology and neurology is manifested in the concept of psycho-neural parallelism: each event in the mental sphere necessarily corresponds to a separate event at the level of the nervous system (not only central, but also peripheral). There is even a separate interdisciplinary field of medicine - psychoneurology. The connection between clinical psychology and psychopharmacology lies in the study of the latter psychological effects of drugs. This also includes the problem of the placebo effect in the development of new drug compounds. The connection of clinical psychology with the physiology of higher nervous activity and psychophysiology is manifested in the search for correlations between pathopsychological processes and their physiological correlates. The connection of clinical psychology with valeopsychology and psychohygiene lies in the joint definition of factors that oppose the emergence of mental and somatic disorders, and the refinement of mental health criteria. The connection of clinical psychology with special psychology and pedagogy is manifested in the search for ways to correct the problematic behavior of children and adolescents caused by impaired mental functioning or anomalies in personal development. ^ Methodological principles of clinical psychology. Methodology is a system of principles and methods for organizing and building theoretical and practical activities, united by the doctrine of this system. She has different levels: philosophical, general scientific, concrete scientific, which are interconnected and should be considered systematically. Methodology is closely related to the worldview, since its system involves a worldview interpretation of the foundations of the study and its results. The methodology of clinical psychology itself is determined by the specific scientific level and is associated with the worldview of the researcher (for example, focused on a dynamic, cognitive-behavioral, humanistic or dialectical-materialistic understanding of personality, behavior, psychopathology). The methodology includes specific scientific methods of research: observation, experiment, modeling, etc. They, in turn, are implemented in special procedures - methods for obtaining scientific data. As a psychological discipline, clinical psychology relies on the methodology and methods of general psychology. Methods, that is, ways of knowing, are ways by which the subject of science is known. Psychology, every science, applies a system of private methods or techniques. The main requirement of scientific methodology, formulated by Hegel, is that research should reflect its subject in its internal logic. He demanded that the method be inseparable from the subject and its content. Methodology in psychology is implemented through the following provisions (principles).

The psyche, consciousness are studied in the unity of internal and external manifestations. The relationship between the psyche and behavior, consciousness and activity in its specific, changing forms is not only an object, but also a means of psychological research.

The solution of a psychophysical problem affirms the unity, but not the identity, of the mental and the physical; therefore, psychological research presupposes and often includes a physiological analysis of psychological (psychophysiological) processes.

The methodology of psychological research should be based on a socio-historical analysis of human activity.

The purpose of psychological research should be the disclosure of specific psychological patterns (the principle of individualization of research).

Psychological patterns are revealed in the process of development (genetic principle).

The principle of pedagogization of the psychological study of the child. It does not mean the rejection of experimental research in favor of pedagogical practice, but the inclusion of the principles of pedagogical work in the experiment itself.

The use of products of activity in the methodology of psychological research, since the conscious activity of a person materializes in them (the principle of studying a specific person in a specific situation).