Ethics is one of the oldest and most fascinating areas of human knowledge. The term "ethics" comes from the ancient Greek word "ethos" (ethos), meaning the actions and deeds of a person, subject to himself, having various degrees of perfection and suggesting the moral choice of the individual. Initially, back in the time of Homer, ethos is a dwelling, a permanent residence. Aristotle interpreted ethos as the virtues of the human character (as opposed to the virtues of the mind). Hence the derivative of ethos - ethos (ethicos - relating to temper, temperament) and ethics - a science that studies the virtues of a human character (courage, moderation, wisdom, justice). To this day, the term "ethos" is used when it is necessary to single out the universal moral foundations that manifest themselves in historical situations that threaten the existence of world civilization itself. And at the same time, from ancient times, ethos (the ethos of the primary elements in Empedocles, the ethos of man in Heraclitus) expressed the important observation that the customs and characters of people arise in the process of their living together.
In ancient Roman culture, the word "morality" denoted a wide range of phenomena and properties of human life: temper, custom, character, behavior, law, fashion prescription, etc. Subsequently, another word was formed from this word - moralis (literally, referring to character, customs ) and later (already in the 4th century AD) the term moralitas (morality). Therefore, in terms of etymological content, the ancient Greek ethica and Latin moralitas coincide.
At present, the word "ethics", having retained its original meaning, denotes a philosophical science, and morality refers to those real phenomena and properties of a person that are studied by this science. So, the main spheres of morality are the culture of behavior, family and household morality, labor morality. In turn, the structure of ethics as a science expresses its historically fixed functions: defining the boundaries of morality in the system of human activity, theoretical substantiation of morality (its genesis, essence, social role), as well as a critical value assessment of morals (normative ethics).
The Russian fundamental principle of moral themes is the word "nature" (character, passion, will, disposition towards something good or vicious). For the first time, "morality" is mentioned in the "Dictionary of the Russian Academy" as "conformity of free deeds with the law." It also gives an interpretation of moralizing “a part of wisdom (philosophy. - I.K.), containing instructions, rules that guide a virtuous life, curbing passions and fulfilling the duties and positions of a person.”
Among the many definitions of morality, one should single out one that is directly related to the issue under consideration, namely: morality belongs to the world of culture, enters into human nature (changeable, self-created) and is a public (non-natural) relationship between individuals.
So, ethics is the science of morality (morality). But since morality is socio-historically conditioned, we should talk about historical changes in the subject matter of ethics. Ethics itself originated in the process of transition from primitive society to early civilizations. Consequently, ethical knowledge was not a product of human civilization, but a product of even more ancient, primitive communal relations. In this case, we mean, rather, normative ethics, and not ethics as a philosophical science. During the period under review, morality began to stand apart as a special, relatively independent form of social consciousness. Individual moral consciousness expressed the reflection of moral norms that opposed the real mores of ancient Greek society. Some of these norms attributed to the seven wise men can be cited: “Honor the elders” (Chilo), “Hurry to please your parents” (Thales), “Prefer old laws, but fresh food” (Periander), “Measure is the best” (Cleobulus) , “Willfulness should be extinguished sooner than a fire” (Heraclitus), etc. Ethics is born as concrete historical value orientations (in relation to a particular historical era) are given an abstract, universal form that expresses the needs of the functioning of early class civilizations.
It should be noted that morality is studied not only by ethics, but also by pedagogy, psychology, sociology, and a number of other sciences. However, only for ethics, morality is the only object of study, giving it a worldview interpretation and normative guidelines. Questions about what is the source of morality (in human nature, space or social relations) and whether the moral ideal is achievable, are transformed into the third question, perhaps the main one for ethics: how and for what to live, what to strive for, what to do?
In the history of ethics, the evolution of the object of study can be traced as follows. Antique ethics is characterized as a doctrine of virtues, a virtuous (perfect) personality. Here, virtue is identified with any specific carrier (the same hero of myths) and is associated, first of all, with such moral qualities as courage, moderation, wisdom, justice, generosity, etc.
The humanists of the Italian Renaissance supplemented these virtues with another one, in which the traditions of ancient and medieval culture were combined - the virtue of philanthropy. K. Salutati (1331-1406) called this virtue humanitas; it combines the interpretation of humanitas as education, instruction in the noble arts, coming from Cicero and Aulus Gellius, and the attitude towards humanitas as a set of natural human properties in the Middle Ages. Humanitas, according to Salutati, is that virtue "which is also commonly called benevolence." The head of the Florentine Academy M. Ficino (1433-1499) defined humanitas as the main moral property. Under the influence of humanitas as the virtue of philanthropy, he believed, people become inherent in the desire for unity. The more a person loves his equals, the more he expresses the essence of the race and proves that he is a man. And vice versa, if a person is cruel, if he moves away from the essence of the family and from communication with his own kind, then he is a person only in name.
The Christian ethics of the Middle Ages focused on the study of morality as an objective, impersonal phenomenon. Criteria for distinguishing between good and evil were taken out of the personality. From the point of view of Christian ethics, God is the absolute source of morality. In it, a person finds the reason, foundation and purpose of his being. Moral norms are elevated into a world law, following which a person who is god-like in essence, but hopelessly sinful in the social and natural dimension, is able to overcome the gap between his purpose (to be like God) and everyday life. To the virtues mentioned above, Christian ethics adds three more new ones - faith (in God), hope (in his mercy) and love (in God).
In the ethics of modern times, one of the most ancient normative requirements, expressing the universal content of morality, received a new sound. At the end of the XVIII century. this requirement is called the "golden rule", which is formed as follows: "act towards others as you would like them to act towards you." I. Kant gave a stricter expression of this rule, presenting it in the form of the so-called categorical imperative. And here we should pay attention to the fact that in this way Kant sets an important humanistic dominant for morality: “Do so,” he writes in the Critique of Practical Reason, “so that you always treat humanity both in your own person and in the person of any other but as an end and would never treat it only as a means. According to Kant, the categorical imperative is a universal obligatory principle that all people must be guided by, regardless of their origin, position, etc.
Having traced the evolution of the object of ethics, it is necessary to indicate three functions of ethics: it describes morality, explains morality, and teaches morality. According to these three functions, ethics is divided into empirical-descriptive, philosophical-theoretical and normative parts.
Here it is necessary to note some differences between morality and morality, although at the level of everyday consciousness these concepts are recognized as synonyms. On this occasion, there are several points of view that do not exclude, but, on the contrary, complement each other, revealing some nuances. If morality is understood as a form of social consciousness, then practical actions of a person, customs, mores are related to morality. In a slightly different way, morality acts as a regulator of human behavior through strictly fixed norms, external psychological influence and control, or public opinion. If we correlate morality with morality thus understood, it is the sphere of moral freedom of the individual, when universal and social imperatives coincide with internal motives. Morality turns out to be an area of self-activity and creativity of a person, an internal attitude to do good.
One more interpretation of morality and morality should be pointed out. The first is an expression of humanity (humanity) in an ideal, complete form, the second fixes a historically specific measure of morality. In the Russian language, the moral, noted V. I. Dal, is that which is opposite to the bodily, carnal. Moral - relating to one half of the spiritual life; opposite to the mental, but constituting a spiritual principle in common with it. To mental V. I. Dal refers truth and falsehood, and to moral - good and evil. A moral person is a good-natured, virtuous, well-behaved, in agreement with conscience, with the laws of truth, with the dignity of a person, with the duty of an honest and pure-hearted citizen. V.G. Belinsky elevated to the rank of "the basic law of morality" the human striving for perfection and the achievement of bliss in accordance with duty.
The moral culture of a person is a characteristic of the moral development of a person, which reflects the degree of mastering the moral experience of society, the ability to consistently implement values, norms and principles in behavior and relationships with other people, readiness for constant self-improvement. A person accumulates in his mind and behavior the achievements of the moral culture of society. The task of forming the moral culture of the individual is to achieve the optimal combination of traditions and innovations, to combine the specific experience of the individual and the entire wealth of public morality. The elements of the moral culture of the individual are the culture of ethical thinking (“the ability of moral judgment”, the ability to use ethical knowledge and distinguish between good and evil), the culture of feelings (a benevolent attitude towards people, an interested and sincere empathy for their sorrows and joys), a culture of behavior and etiquette.
Society at all times distinguished between the concepts of good and evil, i.e. had a certain morality. Ethics is concerned with the history of the development of the distinction between these concepts.
At the center of ethics is morality, i.e. system of moral relations, motives of action, feelings and consciousness. These systems define the "framework" boundaries of relations, actions and interactions of people in society. The specific content of these systems (ethical norms, standards, rules, requirements) depends on the historical stage of the development of society, i.e. on how the society of this historical period understands the categories of good and evil, what is the interpretation of the highest good. The essence of the highest good can be political, economic, social, religious and other concepts, each of which can have a different form: for example, in the political sphere - capitalist morality, bourgeois morality; in the economic sphere, the morality of the social market economy.
The study of the historical development of morality, which is at the center of ethics, shows that in different historical periods society had differences in the way of thinking, in ideas about the world, in systems of spiritual values.
Today, Russian society is characterized by new requirements for the individual, for his morality, for his behavior and actions.
The role of ethics as a science in the present, modern Russian society, is great: it must analyze the moral state of society, indicate the reasons that caused this state, offer solutions that would help update the moral guidelines of society.
Distinguish between universal ethics (it is also called universal) and professional ethics.
Professional ethics develops norms, standards, requirements specific to certain types of activities. In this way, professional ethics is a code of conduct that prescribes the type of relationship that appears to be the best way for employees to perform their duties in a particular professional field(in the production of products, in the provision of services, etc.).
Any professional communication should proceed in accordance with professional ethical norms and standards, the mastery of which depends on a number of factors. They can be grouped into two groups:
- first group- a complex of ethical ideas, norms, assessments that a person has from birth, an idea of what is good and what is evil - i.e. own ethical code, with which a person lives and works, no matter what position he holds and no matter what work he performs;
- second group- those norms and standards introduced from the outside: the internal regulations of the organization, the code of ethics of the company, oral instructions from the management, the professional code of ethics.
It is good if one's own ideas about what is ethical and what is unethical coincide with professional ethical standards introduced from outside, because if such a coincidence is absent - in whole or in part, then problems of greater or lesser degree of difficulty may arise in understanding, mastering and practical application of ethical principles. rules that are not included in the complex of personal moral ideas.
Business ethics is professional ethics that regulates the system of relations between people in the field of business.
Consider the principles, norms, requirements that form the basis of the ethics of business relations.
Principles are abstract, generalized ideas that enable those who rely on them to correctly shape their behavior, their actions, their attitude to something.
In relation to the principles of business ethics, the above is formulated as follows: principles of business ethics, i.e. professional ethics, give a particular employee in any organization a conceptual ethical platform for decisions, actions, actions, interactions, etc.
There is no disagreement among business theorists and practitioners on the scale of the global economy as to which principle should open the list of ethical principles and norms, both for the subjects of ethics - individual employees, and for the collective carriers of ethical principles - organizations.
The central position of the so-called gold standard is generally accepted: “Within the framework of your official position, never allow in relation to your subordinates, to management, to colleagues of your official level, to clients, etc. such actions that you would not want to see in relation to yourself."
The second principle: fairness is necessary in providing employees with the resources necessary for their performance (cash, raw materials, material, etc.).
The third principle requires mandatory correction ethical violation regardless of when and by whom it was admitted.
According to the fourth principle, called the principle of maximum progress, the official behavior and actions of an employee are recognized as ethical if they contribute to the development of the organization (or its divisions) from a moral point of view.
The logical continuation of the fourth principle is the fifth - the principle of minimum progress, according to which the actions of an employee or organization as a whole are ethical, if they at least do not violate ethical standards.
The essence of the sixth principle is as follows: ethical is the tolerant attitude of the employees of the organization to the moral principles, traditions, etc. that take place in other organizations, regions, countries.
According to the eighth principle, individual and collective principles are equally recognized as the basis for developing and making decisions in business relations.
The ninth principle reminds us that we should not be afraid to have our own opinion when solving any official issues. However, nonconformism as a personality trait should be manifested within reasonable limits.
The tenth principle is no violence; "pressure" on subordinates, expressed in various forms, for example, in an orderly, command manner of conducting an official conversation.
The eleventh principle is the constancy of impact, which is expressed in the fact that ethical standards can be introduced into the life of the organization not by a one-time order, but only with the help of ongoing efforts on the part of both the manager and ordinary employees.
The twelfth principle - when acting (on a team, on an individual employee, on a consumer, etc.), take into account the strength of possible counteraction. The fact is that, recognizing the value and necessity of ethical standards in theory, many employees, faced with them in practical daily work, for one reason or another, begin to oppose them.
The thirteenth principle is the expediency of advancing with trust - to the employee's sense of responsibility, to his competence, to a sense of duty, etc.
The fourteenth principle strongly recommends striving for non-conflict. Although the conflict in the business sphere has not only dysfunctional, but also functional consequences, nevertheless, conflict is a fertile ground for ethical violations.
The fifteenth principle is freedom that does not restrict the freedom of others; usually this principle, although in an implicit form, is due to job descriptions.
The sixteenth principle may be called the principle of facilitation; the employee must not only act ethically himself, but also promote the same behavior of his colleagues.
The seventeenth principle is: do not criticize a competitor. This refers not only to a competing organization, but also to an "internal competitor" - a team of another department, a colleague in which one can "see" a competitor.
Here are the basic principles of business ethics; the list of them can be continued, taking into account the specifics of the activities of a particular organization.
The principles of business ethics should serve as the basis for the development of each employee of any company of his own personal ethical system.
Personal ethical standards should be based on ethical principles inherent in this level of social development.
The work of ethical commissions of corporations should be based on the same ethical principles. The content of ethical codes of firms also originates from the principles of ethics.
adminThe social system of the 21st century presupposes the existence of a set of certain legal and moral laws that create an indestructible hierarchical system of moral and state standards. Caring parents from childhood explain to their child the difference between good and bad deeds, laying in the offspring the concepts of “Good” and “Evil”. It is not surprising that in the life of every person murder or gluttony is associated with negative phenomena, and nobility and mercy are classified as positive personal qualities. Some moral principles are already present at the subconscious level, other postulates are acquired over time, forming the image of the individual. However, few people think about the importance of cultivating such values in themselves, neglecting their significance. It is impossible to coexist harmoniously with the surrounding world, guided solely by biological instincts - this is a “dangerous” path, which invariably leads to the destruction of the personal image.
Maximum happiness.
This facet of human morality was considered and proved by the utilitarians John Stuart Mill and Jeremiah Bentham, who deal with ethics in state institute USA. This statement is based on the following formulation - the behavior of the individual should lead to an improvement in the lives of those around him. In other words, if you adhere to social standards, then a favorable environment is created in society for the coexistence of each individual.
Justice.
A similar principle was proposed by the American scientist John Rawls, who argued for the need to equalize social laws with internal moral factors. A person occupying the lower step in the hierarchical structure should have equal spiritual rights with a person at the top of the ladder - this is the fundamental aspect of the assertion of a philosopher from the USA.
It is important to think about your own personal qualities in order to engage in self-improvement in advance. If we neglect such a phenomenon, then over time it will develop into betrayal. The variety of changes that cannot be avoided will form an immoral image that is rejected by others. The main thing is to responsibly approach the identification of life principles and the definition of the worldview vector, objectively evaluating your behavioral signs.
Commandments of the Old Testament and modern society
“Dealing with” the question of the meaning of moral principles and morality in human life, in the process of research, you will definitely turn to the Bible to familiarize yourself with the Ten Commandments from Old Testament. The cultivation of morality in oneself invariably echoes the statements from the church book:
the events taking place are marked by fate, suggesting the development of moral and moral principles in a person (for all the will of God);
do not elevate the people around you by idealizing idols;
do not mention the name of the Lord in everyday situations, complaining about an unfavorable set of circumstances;
respect the relatives who gave you life;
spend six days labor activity, and the seventh day - spiritual rest;
do not kill living organisms;
do not commit adultery by cheating on your spouse;
do not take other people's things, becoming a thief;
avoid lying in order to be honest with yourself and those around you;
do not envy strangers about whom you know only public facts.
Some of the above commandments do not meet the social standards of the 21st century, but most of the statements have remained relevant for many centuries. To date, it is advisable to add the following statements to such axioms, reflecting the features of living in developed megacities:
do not be lazy and be energetic to match the fast-paced industrial centers;
achieve personal success and self-improvement without stopping at the achieved goals;
when creating a family, think in advance about the expediency of the union in order to avoid divorce;
limit yourself in sexual intercourse, not forgetting to protect yourself - eliminate the risk of unwanted pregnancy, which results in an abortion.
do not neglect the interests of strangers, walking "over their heads" for personal gain.
METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL OF GENERAL
DEVALUATION OF MORAL VALUES -
DANGEROUS TREND OF MODERN CIVILIZATION
Our civilization is faced with the problem of preserving and reproducing universal moral foundations, which have seriously shaken in the modern society of general consumption, which exists according to the rule "take everything from life" and is built on the foundation of pragmatic success, the indicators of which are a high social and financial position, delicious food, rest in prestigious resorts, varied sex, quality goods and services, high salaries, low loans…
The consumer success of the liberal-globalist model in question does not correspond to the system of universal human values of a traditional society, if it is measured on the scales of the principle of social justice and socio-natural harmony, and if the Eastern maxim is taken into account: "if there is Tao in society, it is a shame to be poor and if there is no Tao in society, it is a shame to be rich."
It seems that in our world Tao as an oriental principle of harmony in the socio-natural environment is completely absent, which turns society into a "society of the spectacle" (Guy Debord). About him in an ancient Chinese treatise " Tao Te Ching", compiled by Lao Tzu, the following is written: "When a state deviates from the laws of the great Way, hypocritical talk about "philanthropy" and "justice" begins in it. When discord reigns in the family, ostentatious "respect" and "tolerance" appear. When lawlessness and chaos flourish in a state, talkers appear who call for the observance of laws.
The leveling of the Tao principle inevitably gives rise to social inequality during the times of "wild capitalism", undermining the spiritual and moral foundations of a just world order and escalating the process of dehumanization, which many researchers write about:
"Corruption, crime, lawlessness, fraud, general ignorance and bad manners, terrorism, theft, vandalism, human trafficking, homelessness, contract killings, hostage-taking, poverty, environmental disasters, a system of double standards, etc. like a cancer spread across At the same time, the number of highly cultured people is decreasing everywhere, there is an increase in contempt for reason, conscience and morality, the moral foundations of society are collapsing, patriotism, love for nature, animals and man as a whole, as the highest achievement of developing nature, are ridiculed "(V.P. Popov, I.V. Kraynyuchenko).
"The agony of the consumer society inexorably dictates its conditions to the whole world. Every year these conditions become tougher, as the air and water in most of the planet become unsuitable for a normal life of people, the area of \u200b\u200bforests and fertile soils is reduced, and non-renewable resources are depleted. The situation is aggravated by mass production genetically modified food products, new, artificially created epidemics, major man-made disasters, more and more frequent forest fires. observed growing and increasingly fierce struggle for markets and favorable living conditions" (E. Kislitsyna, L. Fionova, M. Shubin).
"The destruction of culture began, the destruction of morality, morals reigned, when it took "justification of the good" and the crime ceased to be a crime. The most terrible predictions came true, and now we can only testify to unheard-of corruption and dehumanization ... "( Valentin Rasputin, "How many years will there be in the 21st century").
"The twentieth century has seriously abandoned humanistic values. Man "became a crowd of shame and disgrace" (G. Guattari), "dehumanized insignificance" (D. Orwell), "moral zero" (S. Bulgakov, S. Frank), "aggressive creature "(Z. Freud)," a sick beast "(M. Scheler, F. Dostoevsky, A. Gelen), a player with" a thousand faces "(J. Deleuze, K. Berg)," a small man with an unstable and destructive psyche " (W. Reich, E. Fromm), a "mad worker", choking on technical power and leading a dialogue with death (M. Heidegger, St. Lem, M. Blanchot)…
The mechanism of this process is still not completely clear, but it seems that the atmosphere of late capitalism, oppressive and destructive for the psyche of people (capitalism of consumerism, omnipotence of corporations, dehumanization, "capitalocracy", deindustrialization and speculation) is already affecting bodily processes. As in magic: where the information influences the physical" (B.G. Ushakov [V.I. Vernadsky…, 2013]).
Umberto Eco in his latest book (" Pape Satan Aleppe") writes about the liquefaction (degradation, deconcentration, diffusion) of brains characteristic of Europeans, which is accompanied by the loss of Europe's deep foundations of "community" as centers of crystallization of knowledge and human self-awareness. objective circumstances.
It is artificially and fundamentally modernized: it is divided into clusters, standardized, digitized and put on wiretapping, recording and subsequent ban in the direct (moral-political and physical) and in the figurative (virtual) sense...
The cult of the LGBT movement, homosexual families and marriages, freechild, the development of the institution of surrogate motherhood, sexual "education" (corruption) of children at an early age and other technologies for promoting the "new" family, social and educational policy are aimed precisely at making the mass person lose ability to self-preservation, uncontrolled reproduction and struggle for offspring" (Vladimir Lepekhin, 2016).
As Erich Fromm wrote, "Any society that denies love is doomed to destruction ... capitalism denies love, reducing it to commodity-money relations" you to me, I to you ". And therefore it will inevitably be destroyed (though it will not be " creative destruction" by Schumpeter, rather it will be the "cleansing creation" of socialism). Our society must regain morality (not in its primitive traditionalist or bourgeois-philistine interpretation), otherwise it will be swept away by those who are not deprived of it. For example, Muslims, who, within the framework of their morality, often act flawlessly. Only through the acquisition of morality, the restoration of morality can we stop the self-destruction that our society has been suffering for the past twenty years. I prefer to look for the origins of this morality not in the past, but in the future."
METHODOLOGICAL LEVEL OF SPECIAL .
THREE VALUE PARADIGMS
There are two most fundamental behavioral matrices, or moral principles, opposed to each other: " man to man - wolf " and " man is man's friend, comrade and brother ".
First principle relies on a sufficiently developed and confirmed by many facts evolutionary theory, according to which in our world the strongest survive as a result of the struggle for existence. This applies not only to the natural, but also to the social history of our planet, which appears as a series of constant confrontations, wars and conflicts. The essence of this phenomenon was conveyed by Voltaire in " Poem about the death of Lisbon":
All beings, having accepted the laws of being,
Joylessly live and meet death, like me.
Here is a hawk stretched out over a dead victim,
He celebrates, covered in blood, his fierce feast:
Everything is good for him; but soon, in turn,
On a hawk, an eagle is overthrown from the heights.
The eagle is smitten with lead, the weapon of man;
And man, in the fields where Mars rules from eternity,
Among the heaps of the dead, pierced, prostrate,
It becomes, alas, the prey of birds of prey.
Thus all the members of the universe groan and mourn;
Everyone oppresses each other, born for suffering.
And in this chaos you strive to create,
Combining all troubles in unity, grace?
What a blessing! O mortal, dust of the earth!
Everything is good, you scream, but, muffling your tears:
You are caught by the world and by your own soul
He refuted his fruitless argument a hundred times.
According to second principle in human society, the law of mutual support and cooperation prevails, and the evolutionary process is realized not as a result of the struggle for existence, but as an altruistic process of mutual assistance (P.A. Kropotkin), when the weak, sick and unadapted to life survive and prosper.
This conclusion can be supported by the following maxim: if this were not so, if only the strongest survived, then humanity would have degraded long ago, since the most talented and brilliant people, as generally quite unadapted and non-pragmatic beings, would be rejected. As a result, humanity would lose momentum for progressive development.
Let's take a closer look at these two principles.
The first principle according to which "man is a wolf to man" is based both on many historical facts and on the events of recent times, which make us all perplexed and ask a sacramental question: why in our civilization, boasting of myriads of cultural and technical achievements, are many of both "civilized ", and the most inhuman forms of oppression of man by man, for example, slavery in its most monstrous form, unknown to the slave traders of past centuries, when not only man, his vitality, the body with its internal organs, but the human consciousness itself is in the full ownership of modern slave owners?
Second principle It is illustrated by many opposite facts that testify to the triumph in our world of the principle of mutual assistance and cooperation as the most reasonable and rational. Let's take a look at some of these facts.
In 1974, the philosopher and psychologist Anatoly Rappoport from the University of Toronto expressed the opinion that the most effective manner of communication between people is: 1) cooperation; 2) exchange; 3) forgiveness. In other words, if an individual, structure, or group collides with other individuals, structures, or groups, it is best for them to seek an alliance. At the same time, the law of reciprocity is also especially important, which means the symmetrical interaction of people when we pay people with what they pay us: for example, if we were helped, we have every reason to return help with the same intensity with which this help was given to us.
In 1979, mathematician Robert Axelrod organized a competition between autonomous computer programs that could react like living beings. The only condition was that each program must be provided with a means of communication and must communicate with its neighbors.
R. Axelrod received fourteen diskettes with programs sent by his colleagues from different universities. Each program offered different behaviors (in the simplest - two options for the course of action, in the most complex - hundreds). The winner had to the largest number points.
Some programs tried as quickly as possible to start exploiting a neighbor, stealing points from him and changing a partner. Others sought to act alone, jealously guarding their achievements and avoiding contact with those who could steal them. There were programs with such rules of behavior: "If someone shows hostility, you need to ask him to change his attitude, then punish him." Or: "cooperate, and then suddenly treacherously betray."
Each of the programs has repeatedly come into conflict with each of the competitors. A. Rapaport's program, armed with the SWOP behavior model (Cooperation, Mutual Exchange, Forgiveness), came out the winner. Moreover, the SWAP program, embedded in the midst of other programs, initially lost to aggressive neighbors, but subsequently not only won a complete victory, but also "infected" others, as rivals realized that its tactics were most effective in earning points.
This information is confirmed by the peculiarities of interaction in the animal world. In the 60s of the twentieth century (France), a horse breeder bought four very good, frisky gray horses, very similar to each other, but their character was terrible.
As soon as they were together, they began to quarrel; it was impossible to harness them together, since each horse tried to run in its own direction. The veterinarian came up with the idea to place the horses in four adjacent stalls and attach toys to the common partitions: wheels that could be turned with their faces, balls that rolled towards the neighbor from a hoof strike, various bright geometric objects suspended on ropes. The veterinarian regularly changed horses so that they all got to know each other and started playing together. A month later, the four horses became inseparable; from now on, they not only allowed themselves to be harnessed next to each other, but seemed to perceive work as a new game. [Werber, 2009, p. 133-134].
In fact, first behavior matrix("survival of the fittest") implements the principle individualism, egocentrism, self-sufficiency .
While second behavior matrix("people tend to help each other") expresses the principle collectivism, conciliarity, humanity .
The question arises as to Which principle is more true?
According to the cornerstone law of dialectics - the law of unity and struggle of opposites - nature and the social world are built on the principle of dynamic binary oppositions, which, in the process of struggle and unity of opposite principles and tendencies, act as a driving mechanism for the development of the Universe. This development invariably reveals a change in the states of unity and struggle in the development of each system. Therefore, both of these states (unity and struggle) are equally important for nature and society.
However, the change of these states on the evolutionary landscape necessarily implies the third - neutral state , in which the first two pass into each other.
Based on this, we can talk about three fundamental modes of socio-natural being:
1) unity and collectivism;
2) plurality and individualism;
3) integrity and integrity, in which the states of unity and plurality integrate, reconcile and pass into each other.
These modes generally correlate with three types of ethical norms corresponding to three stages in the development of a cultural and historical subject, about which P.A. Sorokin wrote:
ideational
(supersensible) ethical norms are embodied in the canons of New Testament Christianity: "Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where moth and rust destroy ... but lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust destroys and where thieves do not break in and steal ". “Love your enemies, bless those who curse you, give thanks to those who hate you, and pray for those who despitefully use you and persecute you.
"Therefore, be perfect, even as your Father in heaven is perfect" (Matt. 9-14).
Or: "an act will always be good when it represents a victory over the flesh; it will be bad if the flesh has conquered the soul, and it will be indifferent if neither one nor the other" [Kropotkin, 1991, p. 290]. The ethical systems of Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, that is, almost all world religions, are also in the forerunner of these norms.
sensual ethical standards: "Maximum happiness for the maximum number of people. The highest goal is pleasure. Let's eat, drink, be merry, because tomorrow we will be gone. Wine, women and song. Follow your desires while you are alive ... Life is short, let's enjoy her."
idealistic ethical norms (synthesis of the above two ethical systems): "The complete happiness of a person cannot be anything other than a vision of the divine essence (Thomas Aquinas, " Sum of theology"); "... as far as possible, one must rise to immortality and do everything for the sake of life, corresponding to the highest in oneself" (Aristotle, " Nicomachean ethics"). "In the conviction that the soul is immortal and capable of enduring any evil and any good, we will all keep to the higher path and observe justice in every possible way, along with rationality, so that while we are here, we will be friends with ourselves and the gods ... and in that thousand-year wandering ... you will be fine "(Plato," State") [Sorokin, 1992, p. 488-489].
The above three cultural-axiological types of the social system (sensual, supersensory (ideational) and intermediate between them - idealistic) correspond to three mental modes of a person - right-, left-hemispheric and "central, intermediate"; within the framework of the latter, the functions of the hemispheres of the human brain are synchronized.
These three mental dimensions of a person can also be correlated with three forms of comprehension of being - sensual, rational and meditative. [Urmantsev, 1993], that is, right-, left-hemispheric and their functional synthesis. The latter takes place in a state of meditation, where, as evidenced by encephalographic studies, functional synchronization of the hemispheres is observed, that is, the hemispheres act as a single whole. .
The considered arrangement of essential forces in the Universe ( unity - plurality - wholeness ) is realized in three slogans of the Great French Revolution as one of the most essential and fundamental socio-historical practices of mankind: freedom equality Brotherhood .
It is easy to see that freedom corresponds to individualism, equality to catholicity, and brotherhood to integrity. Wherein it is on the basis of fraternal relations that opposites are reconciled - freedom and equality.
Applied to social systems brotherhood assumes that all people, being brothers and sisters to each other, come from a single divine source, that is, they were created by God.
Materialists invariably come to this conclusion, too, since the evolutionary rule that humanity descended from one pair of people - male and female - suggests the presence of some kind of divine principle that created these first man and woman.
The dialectical law of binarity requires that in order to implement the second principle - humanity and conciliarity- requires the presence of the opposite principle - individualism and egocentrism. This conclusion can be illustrated by the words from the apocryphal Gospel of Philip, which says: "Light and darkness, life and death, right and left are brothers to each other. They cannot be separated from each other. Therefore, the good are not good, and the bad are not bad, and life is not life, and death is not death. Therefore, each one will be torn at its core from the beginning. But those who are above the world are unbroken, eternal." [Svintsitskaya, 1981, p. 228].
Reconciling these two opposite principles (freedom and equality) is the principle of brotherhood, which, as we have shown, has a divine nature.
Thus, in order for the principle of humanity and catholicity to be possible and gain vitality and universality, and not be only a temporary and transient mode of socio-natural being, which from time to time must be replaced by the opposite principle of individualism and egocentrism - for this this catholic state must be immersed in the state of the Divine, in which all and all opposites are reconciled. Therefore, only in the sphere of Divine reality, which presupposes faith in God and following His commandments, does the principle of humanity acquire an absolute meaning and turn into an absolute life value.
Outside the Divine, which acts as the absolute beginning of being, all its opposite aspects appear as relative and replace each other in the process of the evolutionary formation of the Universe and the unfolding of its forms.
In the absolute sphere of the Divine, not only humanity, but also individualism become absolute values, when humanity is realized as absolute love, and individualism as a free personal beginning of a person identical only to itself. Note that the last value is free personality - acts as a cornerstone condition for the existence of a person, because if he is not free, that is, if he is a biorobot, then all life values and principles lose their meaning (N.A. Berdyaev).
So, in the sphere of the Absolute (Divine), the conciliar and individual principles of socio-natural reality coexist with each other without conflicts and contradictions, when all people (collective) and one person (individual) mutually support and determine each other: "one for all and all for one ".
As we see, on the above philosophical reasoning allows us to outline the essence of humanity as a conciliar principle, which is realized in a state of human immersion in Divine reality.
Therefore, the principle of humanity in its most complete and fundamental embodiment is realized as the principle of Divinity, and man and humanity at their core reveal the divine nature. That is, to be human means to believe in God.
Based on the analysis carried out, it is possible to resolve the specific problem of social conflict, which is one of the most important causes of somatic and spiritual pathologies of modern man.
***
This is an excerpt from articles A.V. Wozniuk "How moral principles are possible"
The etymological analysis of the word "ethics" suggests that the term "ethics" comes from the ancient Greek word "ethos", which meant "custom", "temperament", "character". The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle (384--322 BC) from the term "ethos" formed the adjective "ethicos" - ethical. He singled out two types of virtues: ethical and intellectual. Aristotle referred such positive qualities of a person's character as courage, moderation, generosity, etc. to the ethical virtues. He called ethics the science that studies these virtues. Later, ethics was assigned the designation of the content of the science of morality. Thus, the term "ethics" arose in the 4th century BC.
The term "morality" originated in the conditions of Ancient Rome, where in the Latin language there was a word similar to the ancient Greek "ethos" and this word is "mos", meaning "temper", "custom", that is, almost the same as the ancient Greek word "ethos". ". Roman philosophers, among them Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-43 BC), formed the adjective "moralis" from the term "mos", and then the term "moralitas" - morality - arises from it. By etymological origin, the ancient Greek term "ethics" and the Latin "morality" coincide.
The term "morality" comes from the Old Slavic language, where it comes from the term "mores", denoting the customs that have become established among the people. In Russia, the word "morality" is defined by its use in the press in the Dictionary of the Russian Academy, published in 1793, 2 p.43.
Thus, etymologically, the terms "ethics", "morality" and "morality" arose in different languages and at different times, but they mean a single concept - "temper", "custom". In the course of the use of these terms, the word "ethics" began to designate the science of morality and morality, and the words "morality" and "morality" began to designate the subject of study of ethics as a science. In ordinary usage, these three words can be used as identical. For example, they talk about the ethics of a teacher, meaning his morality, that is, the fulfillment by him of certain moral requirements and norms. Instead of the expression "moral norms" the expression "ethical norms" is usually used.
Consider the relationship between ethics and morality. It is well known that the words "ethics" and "morality" are close in meaning, interchangeable, the absence of a clear distinction between them does not lead to any significant misunderstandings in ordinary communication. But in a specialized philosophical and scientific context, the need for a clear distinction between ethics and morality is due to the general orientation of theoretical consciousness to give key terms as accurate and individual meaning as possible.
From the moment of its appearance (Aristotle's "Ethics"), "ethics" was understood as a special specialized, rational-reflexive, mental activity within the existing "ethos", and the activity is not just cognitive (that is, describing and explaining real morals), but also critically instructive, - or value-oriented, to use later terminology; at the same time, evaluative dichotomies such as "good - bad", "virtuous - vicious", "fair - unfair", etc. were used. Actually, "morality" was initially associated with norms, assessments, principles, maxims, expressed in these concepts; however, if for "morality" these specific norms, ideals, etc., formed in the structure of ethos and regulating human behavior to a certain extent, constituted its very body, then "ethics" developed precisely as a special philosophical discipline, as practical philosophy, it operated with norms and ideals, built from them systems or codes based on a few general principles or sources, and proclaimed these systems as different life programs competing with each other 2 p.164.
The rational meaning of the above statement consists, in my opinion, in stating the fact that the historical paths of ethics and morality diverged over time: "ethics" is still understood as practical philosophy, life teaching, i.e. preaching and defending certain positive values, denoted by the words "good", "evil", "good", "justice", "duty", "conscience", "honor", "dignity"; the concept of morality has been narrowed and specified, so that by no means everything "good" and "proper" has the status of morally good and proper.
The traditional task of ethics - to be "practical philosophy" - is realized by normative ethics, which "helps" morality in developing the most general concepts (categories), in substantiating and evaluating moral values, in establishing their subordination.
Category is the basic concept used by a particular science in the study of its subject. Ethical categories are the basic concepts of the scientific apparatus of ethics, reflecting the most essential aspects and elements of morality. The long history of the development of ethics, the diversity of the phenomena that it studies, as well as the depth of theoretical developments - all this contributed to the emergence and development of a rich categorical apparatus. A feature of the categories of ethics is that many of them are words of ordinary language, for example, “good”, “happiness”, “freedom”, etc. This is because the subject of ethics is directly related to the life of people, with those meanings and guidelines that they are guided in daily life. Consider some of the main categories of ethics.
An important and, in fact, the main concept of ethics is the category of "Good". With its help, a positive moral characteristic of a particular phenomenon is expressed. Opposite to it, expressing a negative moral assessment, is the concept of "Evil". Naturally, positive or negative characteristics are given on the basis of certain moral ideas. In modern ethics, good and evil are moral assessments of a particular phenomenon. They depend on the social practice of a person. However, earlier good and evil were perceived by people as real entities, taking the form of either a substance or a person (eg God, devil).
Along with the concept of good in ethics, the term Good is used. In everyday life, good is everything that contributes to human life, serves to satisfy the material and spiritual needs of people, is a means to achieve certain goals. These are both natural and spiritual goods (knowledge, education, cultural consumption items). Benefit does not always coincide with good. For example, art is devoid of utilitarian utility; the development of industry and material production brings humanity to the brink of an ecological catastrophe. Good is a kind of spiritual good. In the ethical sense, the concept of good is often used as a synonym for good, since good is a kind of spiritual good.
Justice in society is understood in various aspects. This category is moral-political and legal. In ethics, justice is a category that means such a state of affairs, which is considered as due, corresponding to ideas about the essence of a person, his inalienable rights, based on the recognition of equality between all people and the need for correspondence between deeds and retribution for good and evil, a practical role different people and them social position, rights and obligations, merits and their recognition.
Duty is a moral form of awareness of the need for action. A person performs a proper deed voluntarily, out of respect for the ideal, the moral law and for himself. An important characteristic of duty is its connection with the volitional characteristics of a person, since in order to fulfill his duty, he often has to overcome numerous difficulties (both external and internal). Consciousness of duty plays an important role in personal and social life.
The ability of a person to understand, critically evaluate and experience the inconsistency of his behavior with the proper one is characterized by the concept of Conscience. Conscience is a kind of moral and psychological mechanism of self-control. Responsibility for one's actions is the main characteristic of a person.
Categories Honor and Dignity reflect the moral value of the individual and represent a public and individual assessment moral qualities and human actions. Close in meaning, they, however, have important semantic differences. Honor as a moral phenomenon is an external public recognition of a person's deeds, his merits, manifested in veneration, authority, glory. Therefore, the sense of honor inherent in the individual is associated with the desire to achieve high appreciation from others, praise, fame.
Dignity is, firstly, inner confidence in one's own worth, a sense of self-respect, manifested in resistance to any attempts to encroach on one's individuality and independence. And, secondly, the dignity of a person must receive public recognition.
The concept of dignity is more universal, it emphasizes the importance of the individual as a representative of the human race. A sense of honor causes a desire to rise in the social group from which you seek honors. Self-esteem is based on the recognition of fundamental moral equality with other people.
It should be noted that each category of ethics reflects a certain aspect of morality, and in general the categorical apparatus reflects the real moral being of a person, its complexity, hierarchy. Therefore, each category does not exist on its own, but is in interaction with others.
So, the essence of any phenomenon is indicated by certain categories. But a special place among ethical categories is occupied by such moral phenomena as Goodness, Freedom, Justice, Honor, Dignity, Conscience, Meaning of Life, Happiness, Love. Their role in the system of morality is so great that they can rightfully be attributed to the highest moral values, since our morality largely depends on their correct understanding: our views, assessments, actions, 4 pp. 112-121.
We will also consider the principles of ethics in the work. The principles of ethics of business relations can be represented as a set of moral requirements developed in the moral consciousness of society and defining the rules of human behavior in the system of business relations.
Distinguish between general human and professional ethics. Professional ethics governs the norms, standards specific to certain types of activities. This is a kind of code of conduct, ascribed type of relationship in a particular field of activity. Ethics of business relations is a professional ethics that regulates the system of relations in the field of business. It is based on the principles and norms that will be discussed below.
You can talk about different principles of business ethics, such as pragmatism, expediency, utility. However, the following are the main principles.
- 1. Never do anything that infringes on the established rights of others.
- 2. Always act in a way that maximizes profit within the limits of the law, the requirements of the market and with full consideration of costs.
- 3. Never do anything that is contrary to the interests of your company.
- 4. Never do something that violates the law, because the law represents the moral norms of society,.
These principles are present to varying degrees and are recognized as fair in various business cultures.
So, in conclusion of the chapter, we note that ethics as a science explores what in life and in the world has value for a person, because ethical behavior consists in the implementation of ethical values. Ethics contributes to the awakening of the evaluating consciousness. Ethical values, the meaning of which is revealed through education, ethical feeling, form a system, the basis of which is formed by unconsciously implemented life values (the will to live, the need for food, sexual need, etc.), and at the top are the highest values.
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