The evolution of control theory. The evolution of management theory and practice The sequence of evolutionary development of management theory

1. The evolution of management theory

Definition of the term "management".

Management is an independent type of professionally carried out activity aimed at achieving certain intended goals during any economic activity of a company operating in market conditions through the rational use of material and labor resources using the principles, functions and methods of the economic mechanism of management. Management is management in market conditions, market economy, which means: the orientation of the company to the demand and needs of the market, to the needs of specific consumers and the organization of the production of those types of products that are in demand and can bring the company the intended profit. The term "management" in its essence is an analogue of the term "management", it is its synonym, however, not fully. The term management is much broader, since it is applied to different areas of human activity (for example, driving a car); to different fields of activity (management in inanimate nature, in biological systems, government); to the governing bodies (divisions in state and public organizations as well as in enterprises and associations). The term management is applied only to the management of socio-economic processes at the level of a firm operating in market conditions, although recently it has been used in the United States in relation to business organizations.
The ultimate goal of management is to ensure profitability or profitability in the activities of the company through the rational organization of the production process, including the management of production and the development of the technical and technological base, as well as the effective use human resources while improving the skills, creativity and loyalty of each employee.

Management practice before startXX in.

Until the beginning of the 20th century. there was no holistic theory of management; the work of an engineer, an administrator, was rather an art based on intuition. However, the rapid development of new technologies, unprecedented scale of production with all acuteness raised the question of the formation of scientific methods of management. What was required was not an abstract theory, but scientific research aimed at solving specific problems and developing practical recommendations. And it is no coincidence that the foundations of the theory of production management were laid by people who thoroughly knew the technology of industrial enterprises and the peculiarities of the relationship between workers and managers. Eli Whitney in his cotton mill was the first to use the assembly line, still stationary, introduced the idea of ​​interchangeability of parts and quality control methods. Ch. Babbage, striving to increase labor productivity, practically carried out the specialization of workers, he studied kinematics technological operations, the role of the tool park, the location of enterprises, the influence of many, sometimes completely unrelated factors, from the color of the walls and trade unions to production equipment, on the efficiency of the labor process ("Economics of machines and industrial enterprises"). But the main, incomprehensibly bold and many years ahead of its time achievement of Babbage's creative thought was the creation of his famous "analytical engine", freeing a person from performing routine arithmetic operations - a prototype of digital computers of the distant future.

School of Scientific Management: Gilberts, G. Gant.

Scientific management (1885 - 1920). Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of Frank and Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gant. These creators of the school of scientific management believed that by using observation, measurement, logic, and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved and performed more efficiently. The first phase of the methodology of scientific management was the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main components. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to interest workers in increasing productivity and output. There was also room for short breaks and inevitable breaks in production, so that the amount of time allocated to certain tasks was realistic and fairly set. This allowed management to set production quotas that were achievable and to pay extra for those who exceeded the minimum. The key element in this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more. The authors of works on scientific management also recognized the importance of selecting people who were physically and intellectually suited to the work they were doing, they also emphasized the importance of training. Scientific management has also advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work. Taylor and his contemporaries actually recognized that management work is a specialty and that the organization as a whole would benefit if each group of employees focused on what they did best. This approach is strongly stated by old system in which the workers themselves planned their work. The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, leaders - practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used in the practice of achieving the goals of the organization.

Frederick Winslow Taylor (1 The main work is "Principles of Scientific Management" (1911). He is the creator of production planning as a discipline. Taylor researched the factors that affect productivity and time management techniques. Based on the analysis of thousands of experiments, recommendations were formulated for organizing industrial production and for training personnel. Frederick Taylor put forward the idea of ​​narrow specialization, singled out planning as the most important element in the organization of production, and believed that production planning should be handled by professional managers.

The Gilberts. While still a bricklayer's apprentice, Gilbreth noticed that the people who taught him how to lay bricks used three basic sequences of motions. He wondered which of these movements was the most effective; so he methodically studied these movements as well as the instruments used. The result is an improved method that reduces the number of strokes required to lay one brick from 18 to 4 and a half, thereby increasing productivity by 50%.

In the early 1900s, Frank and his wife Lillian began to study work operations using a movie camera in combination with a microchronometer. The microchronometer is a watch that Frank invented that could record intervals up to 1/2000 of a second. With the help of freeze frames, the Gilberts were able to identify and describe 17 basic hand movements. They called these movements terbligs. This name comes from the surname Gilbreth, if read backwards.

Henry Gant () is an associate of the "father of scientific management" Frederick Taylor. Gant studied management through the construction of ships during World War I and proposed his bar chart (tasks) and dots (terminating tasks or milestones) as a means of representing the duration and sequence of tasks in a project. The Gantt chart proved to be such a powerful analytical tool that it remained unchanged for almost a hundred years. And only in the early 1990s for more detailed description relationships, communication lines between tasks were added to it.

Administrative school: A. Fayol.

Classical or administrative school in management (1920 - 1950). The authors who have written about scientific management have mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below the managerial level. With the advent of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole. Taylor and Gilbreth began their careers as simple workers, which undoubtedly influenced their understanding of the management of the organization. In contrast, the authors who are considered the founders of the school administration, better known as the classical school, had first-hand experience as senior executives in big business. Henri Fayol, credited with originating the school and sometimes referred to as the father of management, ran a large French coal mining company. Lyndall Urwick was a management consultant in England. Mooney, who co-wrote with, worked under Sloan at General Motors. Consequently, their main concern was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - in relation to the work of the entire organization. Classicalists, like those who wrote about scientific management, did not care much about the social aspects of management. Moreover, their work was largely based on personal observation rather than based on scientific methodology. The "classics" tried to look at organizations from a broader perspective, trying to identify common characteristics and patterns of organizations. The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of government. At the same time, she proceeded from the idea that following these principles will undoubtedly lead the organization to success. These principles touched on two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system. In defining the basic functions of a business, the "classic" theorists were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into divisions or work groups. Traditionally, such functions were finance, production and marketing. Closely connected with this was the definition of the main functions of management. Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he viewed management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions such as planning and organization. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. An example is the principle of unanimity, according to which a person should receive orders from only one boss and obey only him alone.

School of Human Relations: E. Mayo, D. McGregor

School of Human Relations (1930 - 1950). Behavioral Sciences (1950-present). The authors of scientific management and the classical approach recognized the importance human factor, their discussions were limited to such aspects as fair pay, economic incentives and the establishment of formal functional relationships. The human relations movement was born in response to a failure to fully understand the human element as a key element of organizational effectiveness. Because it arose as a reaction to the shortcomings of the classical approach, the human relations school is sometimes called the neoclassical school. Two scientists - Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo can be called the greatest authorities in the development of the school of human relations in management. She was the first to define management as "getting work done with the help of others". The famous experiments of Elton Mayo, especially those carried out at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, opened up a new direction in control theory. Mayo found that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to higher productivity, as the schools of scientific management believed. The forces that arise in the course of interaction between people could surpass the efforts of the leader. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to pressure from colleagues in the group than to the desires of management and to material incentives. More recent research by Abraham Maslow and other psychologists has helped to understand the causes of this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions, Maslow suggests, are mainly not economic forces, as the supporters and followers of the school of scientific management believed, but various needs that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, the researchers of the psychological school believed that if management takes more care of their employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective action by immediate supervisors, consultation with workers, and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work.

The development of sciences such as psychology and sociology and the improvement of research methods after the Second World War made the study of behavior in the workplace more strictly scientific. Among the major figures of the later period in the development of the behavioral-behaviorist direction, one can mention, first of all, Chris Argyris, Rensis Likert, Douglas McGregor and Frederick Herzberg. These and other researchers have studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, the nature of power and authority, organizational structure, communication in organizations, leadership, change in the content of work and the quality of working life. The School of Behavioral Sciences has departed significantly from the School of Human Relations, which focused primarily on methods for building interpersonal relationships. The new approach sought to assist the worker to a greater extent in realizing his own capabilities through the application of the concepts of the behavioral sciences to the construction and management of organizations. The main goal of this school was to improve the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of its human resources. The behavioral approach became so popular that it almost completely covered the entire field of management in the 60s. Like earlier schools, this approach advocated a "single best way" to solve managerial problems. His main postulate is that the correct application of the science of behavior will always improve the efficiency of both the individual employee and the organization as a whole.

Douglas McGregor (). In the early 1950s, McGregor first formulated his ideas about management, which were published in 1960 in his main work, The Human Side of Enterprise. Douglas McGregor argued that there are two types of personnel management, the first of which is based on "Theory X", and the second - on "Theory Y". Theory X states that the average person dislikes work and avoids work whenever possible. Consequently, management is forced to resort to hard (total control and a system of punishments) and soft (persuasion and encouragement) forms of coercion. But both of these methods are erroneous, because they lose sight of the reason for the unwillingness to work: the fact is that a person has little worthy remuneration for work, he needs the opportunity for self-realization, and any form of coercion prevents this. Theory Y states that it is as natural for a person to expend moral and physical strength on work as it is to rest or play. This means that a person can be stimulated to work if he is given the opportunity to fully open up, take responsibility, and feel his importance for the organization. Unfortunately, McGregor notes, in the conditions of a modern industrial society, the intellectual potential of a person is not fully used. McGregor argued that in some situations (for example, mass production) only theory X is suitable, and in others only theory Y. Realizing that it is impossible to fully implement his theories in practice, McGregor tried to convey to managers the idea that employees can do for organizations are much larger if they are treated as valuable and responsible employees.

Elton Mayo (1880–1945) came to a sensational discovery at the time, exploring the dependence of labor productivity on the physical aspects of work (for example, lighting). After numerous experiments (Hawthorne experiments) it was concluded that group behavior may be largely independent of working conditions or pay schemes. He put forward the idea of ​​humanization of labor on industrial enterprise. Laid the foundations of the organization model as a community, while as its essential function considered the function of meeting the social needs of a person in the conditions of the crisis of American society, the breakup of the family, the fall of the role of traditional social institutions. He drew attention to the social nature of man (based on the thesis of man as a social animal), as well as the meaning small group, leadership and informal organization in the regulation of human behavior. He proposed to focus in management on stimulating the motivation and interest of the employee in the content of the activity. He questioned the universality of the role of monetary reward as a motive for activity. Emphasized the importance of the intellectualization of executive functions, the maximum possible use of the rich human potential,

School of Management Science

Management science or quantitative approach (1950 - present). Mathematics, statistics, engineering and related fields of knowledge have made significant contributions to control theory. Their influence can be traced in Taylor's application of the scientific method in the analysis of work. But before the Second World War, quantitative methods were not used enough in management.
Operations research and models. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization. After the problem is formulated, the operations research team develops a model of the situation. After the model is created, the variables are given quantitative values. This allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationships between them. A key characteristic of management science is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative values. Probably the biggest push for application quantitative methods in management gave the development of computers. The computer allowed operations researchers to design mathematical models of increasing complexity that come closest to reality and are therefore more accurate. The impact of the quantitative approach. The influence of management science or the quantitative approach has been much less than that of the behavioral approach, partly because many more managers deal daily with the problem of human relations, human behavior, than with the problems that are the subject of operations research. In addition, until the 1960s, very few managers were educated enough to understand and apply complex quantitative methods. However, this is rapidly changing as more business schools offer courses in quantitative methods and computer applications.

The contribution of various schools to the development of managerial thought.

School of Scientific Management.

1. Using scientific analysis to determine the best way to accomplish a task.

2. Selecting workers best suited to the task and providing them with training.

3. Providing workers with the resources required to effectively perform their tasks.

4. Systematic and correct use of financial incentives to increase productivity.

5. Separation of planning and thinking from the work itself.

Classical School of Management

1. Development of management principles.

2. Description of control functions.

3. A systematic approach to managing the entire organization.

School of Human Relations and School of Behavioral Sciences

1. Applying interpersonal relationship management techniques to improve satisfaction and performance.

2. The application of the sciences of human behavior to the management and formation of an organization so that each worker can be fully utilized according to his potential.

Management Science

1. Deepening understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models.

2. Development of quantitative methods to help decision makers in difficult situations.

Scientific approaches in management: traditional, process, systemic, situational.

To date, four major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of the theory of practice and management.

Traditional approach. The approach from the standpoint of identifying different schools in management actually includes four different approaches. Here management is considered from four points of view. These are the schools of scientific management, administrative management, human relations and behavioral sciences, as well as management sciences, or quantitative methods.

Process approach considers management as a continuous series of interrelated management functions.

This concept, signifying a major turn in management thought, is widely used today. Management is seen as a process because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but a series of continuous interrelated actions. These activities, each of which is a process in itself, are essential to the success of the organization. They are called managerial functions. Each managerial function is also a process because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions. The control process is the total sum of all functions.

In a systems approach it is emphasized that managers should consider the organization as a set of interdependent elements, such as people, structure, tasks and technology, which are focused on achieving different goals in a changing external environment.

The initial shortcoming of the approaches of various schools to management is that they focus on only one important element, and do not consider the effectiveness of management as a resultant, depending on many different factors. The application of systems theory to management has made it easier for managers to see the organization as a unity of its constituent parts that are inextricably intertwined with the outside world. This theory also helped to integrate the contributions of all the schools that have dominated management theory and practice at various times. A systems approach is not a set of some guidelines or principles for managers - it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management.

A system is a kind of integrity, consisting of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole. All organizations are systems.

situational approach focuses on what suitability various methods management is determined by the situation. Because there are so many factors in the organization itself and in the environment, there is no single “best” way to manage an organization. by the most effective method in a particular situation is the method that best suits the situation.

2. Main functions of management

Brief description of the main functions of management. Planning, organization, motivation, control, coordination.

Management is seen as a process because working to achieve goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but a series of continuous interrelated actions. These activities, each of which is a process in itself, are essential to the success of the organization. They are called managerial functions. Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions.

The control process is the total sum of all functions. The management process (management) has four interrelated functions: planning, organization, motivation and control.

Planning

The planning function means the development and adoption of a specific resolution, written or oral, in which a goal or another goal will be set before the object of management. This ruling is a management decision. Planning- this is one of the ways by which leadership ensures a single direction of efforts of all members of the organization towards the achievement of its common goals. With this function, the management process begins, the success of the organization depends on its quality.

By your own nature the planning function is designed to answer the following main questions:

· Where are we at the present time? Managers should evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the organization in its main areas (finance, marketing, personnel, R&D) to determine what the organization can realistically achieve;

· Where do we want to go? Managers should, assessing the opportunities and threats in the environment surrounding the organization, determine what the goals of the organization should be and what can interfere with the achievement of these goals;

· How are we going to do this? Managers decide what the members of the organization must do to achieve their goals.

Organization

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organize- means to divide into parts and delegate the implementation of a common management task by distributing responsibilities and powers, as well as establishing relationships between various workers

Function content is:

· Adaptation of the organizational structure of the company to the tasks of the planned activity;

· Selection of people for specific work and delegation of powers to them, rights to use the resources of the organization.

For successful implementation of the function, the requirements of the following must be taken into account. local principles of organization:

· The principle of purpose. The organization, its individual links work in the name of achieving a common goal;

· Elasticity of organization. When defining tasks and responsibilities, it should be set optimally between the freedom of action of individual employees and administrative regulations;

· Stability. The control system must be built in such a way that its elements do not undergo fundamental changes under the influence of the external and internal environment;

· Continuous improvement. It suggests the need for systematic organizational work to improve the process of organizing and implementing decisions;

· Direct subordination. Any worker must have one boss;

· Volume of control. The manager is qualified to provide and supervise the work of a limited number of subordinates;

Unconditional responsibility of the leader for the actions of subordinates;

· Proportionality of responsibility to these powers;

· Exceptions. Decisions of a repetitive nature are reduced to routine ones, the implementation of which is entrusted to lower management levels;

· Priority of functions. The management function gives birth to the management body, and not vice versa;

· Combinations. It is necessary to provide the most correct combination of centralism and self-reliance.

Planning.

Henri Fayol, who is credited with the initial development of the concept, believed that there were five original functions. According to him, "to manage means to predict and plan, organize, dispose, coordinate and control." Other authors have developed other lists of functions, which are ultimately grouped into planning, organization, motivation, control. These four primary functions of management are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. Management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity. It suggests the possibility of influencing individual workers and groups of employees in such a way that they work towards achieving the goals that are essential to the success of the organization. Each of these functions will be discussed in detail later.

The planning function involves deciding what the goals of the organization should be and what the members of the organization should do to achieve those goals. At its core, the planning function answers three main questions:

1. Where are we currently located? Managers should evaluate strengths and weak sides organizations in important areas such as finance, marketing, manufacturing, research and development, labor resources. All this is done to determine what the organization can realistically achieve.

2. Where do we want to go? By assessing the opportunities and threats in the organization's environment, such as competition, customers, laws, political factors, economic conditions, technology, supply chain, social and cultural change, management determines what the organization's goals should be and what might prevent the organization from achieving those goals.

3. How are we going to do it? Leaders must decide, both broadly and specifically, what the members of the organization must do to achieve the goals of the organization. Planning is one of the ways in which management ensures that the efforts of all members of the organization are directed towards the achievement of its overall goals.

The mission of the organization.

An organization cannot successfully exist in a competitive business environment if it does not have certain guidelines indicating what it should strive for and what it wants to achieve. Such landmarks are set with the help of the mission.

At present, among managers and consultants dealing with the problem of the "mission" of the company, the interest in its external expression or "communicative" function of the mission prevails. This consists in finding and formulating a certain message to society and inside the organization, explaining its goals and values. Despite the absolute importance of this "literary" aspect of the mission, its so-called " internal structure”, which is explicitly designed to declare the intentions of the company in relation to all parties interested in its successful activities.

It is the "construction" of the mission, and not just the choice of a "corporate slogan", that will allow the establishment of reasonable, rather than arbitrary goals.

Employees of Western firms work with the theme of the mission simply and “technologically”, acting according to established algorithms: you need to determine the values ​​of your organization, the characteristics of your “team”, the characteristics of your “client”, link all this into a single socially attractive image - and the job is done.

Essentially, working with an organization's mission statement is about identifying answers to a few "Why?" questions. Or, which is more pleasing to the Russian tradition and the Russian ear, the definition of the meaning of your business, its purpose and your activities in it.

Why this business - founders (organizers)?

Having an answer to this question helps to understand the goals and course that the organization is following, what is important and valuable for leaders, and therefore for the direction of the organization. The answer to this question allows the organization to “save its face” despite all the changes that occur outside or that organizations experience in the course of their development.

Why this business - to society (clients)?

Finding answers to this question provides a lot of serious advantages. First of all - an accurate understanding of the "client" of the organization, to whom its activities are oriented, as well as the definition of what and how is offered in response to his request. In addition, the definition of a social mission helps to understand and formulate ideas that are important for the image and prestige of the organization, namely, how an organization can be valuable to society.

Why this business - people who work in the organization (employees)?

The search for an answer to this question allows you to discover that special thing that distinguishes the employees of the organization from the rest and helps to solve many problems related to the topic of attachment or commitment of employees to the firm. Perhaps what is done in Japanese corporations, when before the start of the working day, employees sing the anthems of their organization, singing, among other things, its mission, may look like overkill. Therefore, the main thing that gives the employees of the organization an understanding and acceptance of its mission is a sense of belonging to everything that happens in the company, complicity in its affairs, a sense of social belonging that is so important in our time.

Thus, the mission of the organization is, on the one hand, the very “flag” that is needed as an opportunity to present the company to the outside world (primarily to customers), and the “banner” under which people gather to carry out business as a cohesive team and implement the ideas that the outside world expects from the organization.

The mission is the purpose of the organization, the main purpose of its existence, the main content of the business.

The mission is of great importance for the business environment. It affects the image of the organization, attracts consumers, partners, shareholders, as it informs about what the company is, what it strives for, what it is guided by in its activities, what means it is ready to use.

The mission gives the organization certainty and personality.

It is the basis for developing the goals and strategy of the organization, has an impact on the formation organizational culture, since the employees of the organization must share the main goal, be aware of and contribute to its achievement, as well as share the values ​​​​and principles that are often reflected in the mission.

The mission of an organization, especially a large one, can be formulated very broadly, be diversified, at the level of a division or small organization the mission is formulated more specifically, clearly and, as a rule, reflects a certain field of activity and the product (service) being produced.

The mission can be formulated in the form of a motto or slogan.

The mission provides another opportunity to serve the interests of key stakeholder groups.

Mission, corporate credo, slogan, motto, slogan - in the understanding of the mission, these words are synonymous.

The mission can be either simple or compound. A simple mission is short and concise, sounds like a call or appeal. Composite - can consist of several missions:

General mission of a corporation (concern, holding)

Missions of individual companies included in the above structures;

Also, a composite mission may contain several complementary blocks: principles, creeds, values, etc.

Factors affecting the mission of the organization:

- SOCIETY IN GENERAL

- MARKET

- LOCAL COMMUNITY

- PARTNERS

- LEADERS

- EMPLOYEES

- OWNERS

- CONSUMERS

1 Evolution of control theory

Management is the ability to achieve goals using labor, intellect, motives for the behavior of other people. The term "management" is applicable to any type of organization, but when it comes to government bodies any level, it is more correct to use the term “public administration”, and the term “administration” is used to denote an impersonal management system. Not a single organization, not a single p / n can succeed without management. However, management as an activity and as a science in the form in which we currently have it did not appear immediately. As soon as prehistoric people began to live in organized groups, they had a need for management. At the first stage, when the groups of people were small, management in all areas was carried out by one person - the leader of this group. In the future, as the groups grew and the functions performed by them became more complex, the need arose for the division of labor and differentiation of functions. But it took centuries. The Egyptian pyramids are a clear evidence not only of the culture of the ancient Egyptians, but also of their managerial art. The construction of huge pyramids required, above all, clear planning. The ancient Greeks paid special attention to the organization and management of production processes, cared for a clear specialization of workers. Socrates gives an understanding of management as a special sphere of human activity. He talked about the fact that the main thing in management is to put the right person in the right place and achieve the fulfillment of the tasks assigned to him. The revolution in production relations is associated with the industrial revolution, which began in the middle of the 18th century. The industrial revolution is associated with the allocation of three levels of management: upper, middle and lower. A master appeared in production, who soon became hated by the workers. At this stage in the development of management, there has only been a tendency to move from the principle of supervision of workers to the principle of organizing labor on a scientific basis. The Industrial Revolution gave impetus to the development of theoretical research and management practice. It is impossible not to note the huge contribution of the English utopian socialist Robert Owen in the development of managerial thought and management practice. Earlier than others, he noticed and appreciated the role of the human factor in production, which other researchers came to the need to take into account only 100 years later. At the beginning of the 19th century, Robert Owen devoted much of his time to the problems of achieving the goals of the organization with the help of other people. It provided workers with decent housing, improved working conditions, developed systems for open and fair evaluation of workers, and through additional payments for Good work developed a material interest. These reforms, phenomenally innovative for their time, were a unique breakthrough into the essence of human perception of reality and the role of a leader. People from afar flocked to his factory in Scotland to see firsthand "this wonderful social experiment." But despite the fact that the factory was exceptionally profitable, other businessmen of the time saw little common sense in Owen's reforms. As far as is known, none of them followed his example. The formation of the theory of management in a socialist society was greatly influenced by the works of K. Marx and F. Engels. Not engaged in research on the nature and essence of management, they contributed to the formation of this science with the help of research methods they created. K. Marx derives the necessity of the division of labor from the development of cooperation: the capitalist is often unable to independently manage his factory. Moreover, it is not necessary, since the labor of supervision, completely separated from the ownership of capital, has always been offered in abundance. It therefore became unnecessary that this supervisory work should be carried out by the capitalist. Thus, the result of the division of labor was the isolation of management, which began to be regarded as a special function of any joint labor. However, before this era, the management function was carried out by the capitalist himself and a small group of people close to him. The role of specially trained managers is especially enhanced in the era of the development of monopoly capitalism. Faced with competition, a changing external environment, managers developed a system of knowledge about how best to use resources. Thus, the prerequisites and sources for the formation of management as management of a special kind are: the industrial way of organizing production; development of market relations , the main elements of which are supply, demand and price. The evolution of management as a science. In the first half of the twentieth century, four distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Chronologically, they can be listed in the following order: School of Scientific Management, School of Administration, School of Psychology and Human Relations, and School of Management Science (or Quantitative School). Each of these schools has made significant and tangible contributions to the field. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within these schools. Scientific Management(scientific management) (1885 -1920) Scientific management is most closely associated with the work of F.W. Taylor, Frank and Lily Gilbreth and Henry Gantt. These school founders scientific management believed that, using observations, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved, achieving their more efficient performance. The first phase of the methodology of scientific management was the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main components. Taylor, for example, meticulously measured the amount of iron ore and coal that a person could lift with shovels of varying sizes. The Gilbreths invented the device and called it the chronometer. They used it in conjunction with a movie camera to determine exactly what movements are performed in certain operations and how long each of them takes. Based on the information received, they changed the workflow to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements and, using standard procedures and equipment, sought to improve work efficiency. Taylor, for example, found that the maximum amount of iron ore and coal could be moved if workers used a shovel with a capacity of up to 8.6 kg. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. An important contribution of this school was the systematic use of incentives to interest workers in increasing productivity and output. There was also room for short breaks and inevitable breaks in production, so that the amount of time allocated to certain tasks was realistic and fairly set. This gave management the opportunity to set production quotas that were feasible and to pay extra to those who exceeded the minimum. The key element in this approach was that people who produced more were rewarded more. Scientific management has also advocated separating the managerial functions of thinking and planning from actually doing the work. Taylor and his contemporaries actually recognized that management work is a specialty and that the organization as a whole would benefit if each group of workers focused on what they did best. This approach contrasted sharply with the old system in which workers planned their own work. The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became widely recognized as an independent field of science. For the first time, practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches used in science and technology can be effectively used in the practice of achieving the goals of the organization. classical, or an administrative school in management (1920-1950). The authors who have written about scientific management have mainly devoted their research to what is called production management. They were engaged in improving efficiency at a level below the managerial level. With the advent of the administrative school, specialists began to constantly develop approaches to improving the management of the organization as a whole. Taylor and Gilbreth began their careers as simple workers, which undoubtedly influenced their understanding of the management of the organization. In contrast, the authors, who are considered the founders of the school of administration, better known as the classical school, had direct experience as senior managers in big business. Henri Fayol, the origin of this school is associated with the name of the cat, and the cat is sometimes called the father of management, led a large French coal mining company. Consequently, their main concern was efficiency in the broader sense of the word - in relation to the work of the entire organization. The goal of the classical school was to create universal principles of government. At the same time, she proceeded from the idea that following these principles will undoubtedly lead the organization to success. These principles touched on two main aspects. One of them was the development of a rational organization management system - dividing it into divisions or working groups in accordance with business functions (finance, production and marketing). Fayol's main contribution to management theory was that he considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions - planning, o / ii, motivation, control. The second category of classical principles concerned the structure of the organization and the management of workers. Management principles of Henri Fayol 1. Division of labor. Specialization is the natural order of things. The purpose of the division of labor is to do more and better work with the same effort. This is achieved by reducing the number of goals to which attention and effort must be directed. 2. Powers and responsibility. Authority is the right to give orders, and responsibility is its opposite. Where authority is given, there responsibility arises. 3. Discipline involves obedience in respect of the agreements reached between the firm and its employees. Establishing these agreements binding the firm and employees from which disciplinary formalities arise must remain one of the main tasks of industry leaders. Discipline also implies fair application of sanctions. 4. Unity of command. An employee should receive orders from only one immediate superior. 5. Unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader. 6. Subordination of personal interests to the general. The interests of one employee or group of employees should not prevail over the interests of a company or a larger organization. 7. Remuneration of personnel. In order to ensure the loyalty and support of workers, they must receive a fair wage for their service. 8. Centralization. Like the division of labor, centralization is the natural order of things. However, the appropriate degree of centralization will vary depending on specific conditions. Therefore, the question arises about the right proportion between centralization and decentralization. It is a problem of determining the measure that will provide the best possible results. 9. Scalar chain A scalar chain is a series of persons standing on leadership positions, starting from the person occupying the highest position in this chain - down to the head of the grassroots. 10. Order. A place for everything and everything in its place. 11. Justice. Justice is a combination of kindness and justice. 12. Stability of the workplace for staff. High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the O/S. 13. Initiative. Initiative means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation. This gives the organization strength and energy. 14. Corporate spirit. School of Human Relations(1930-1950). The human relations movement was born in response to the failure of the scientific management school and the classical school to fully recognize the human element as a key element in organizational effectiveness. Two scientists - Mary Parker Follett and Elton Mayo can be called the greatest authorities in the development of the school of human relations in management. Follett was the first to define management as "getting work done with the help of others". The famous experiments of Elton Mayo, especially those carried out at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, opened up a new direction in control theory. Mayo found that well-designed work procedures and good wages did not always lead to increased productivity, as the representatives of the scientific management school believed. The forces that arose in the course of interaction between m / y people could and often exceeded the efforts of the leader. Sometimes employees reacted much more strongly to peer pressure than to management desires and financial incentives. More recent studies by Abraham Maslow and other psychologists have helped to understand the causes of this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions, Maslow suggests, are mainly not economic forces, as the supporters and followers of the school of scientific management believed, but various needs that can only be partially and indirectly satisfied with the help of money. Based on these findings, the researchers of the psychological school believed that if management takes more care of their employees, then the level of employee satisfaction should increase, which will lead to increased productivity. They recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective action by immediate supervisors, consultation with workers and giving them more opportunities to communicate at work. . Management Science or quantitative approach (1950 - present) Before the Second World War, quantitative methods were not used enough in management. Purely military tasks gave impetus to their development. These methods, grouped under the heading of operations research, were used in opening a second front, in submarine warfare, mining Japanese ports, and other tasks. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization. After the problem is stated, operations researchers develop a model of the situation. After the model is created, the variables are given quantitative values. This allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationships between them. The greatest impetus to the use of quantitative methods in management came from the development of computers. The computer has allowed operations researchers to construct mathematical models of increasing complexity that come closest to reality and are therefore more accurate. In addition, until the 1960s, very few managers were educated enough to understand and apply complex quantitative methods. However, this is rapidly changing as more business schools offer courses in quantitative methods and computer applications. The merit of the school of management science lies in the fact that it was able to determine the main internal and external variables (factors) affecting the organization. The hallmark of management science is use of models. Models become especially important when it is necessary to make decisions in complex situations that require the evaluation of several alternatives. Thus, the 50s. 20th century characterized by the formation of a new stage in the development of managerial thought. Based on the synthesis of ideas put forward in previous periods, researchers have come to understand the need for an integrated approach to management. In addition, the idea was formulated that management is not only a science, but also an art. To date, 3 major approaches are known that have made a significant contribution to the development of theory and practice. 1. PROCESS APPROACH considers management as a continuous series of interrelated management functions. 2. The SYSTEMS APPROACH emphasizes that managers should view the organization as a set of interdependent elements such as people, structure, tasks and technology that are oriented towards achieving different goals in a changing environment. 3. SITUATIONAL APPROACH focuses on the fact that the suitability of different management methods is determined by the situation. Because there are so many factors, both in the organization itself and in the environment, there is no single “best” way to manage an organization. The most effective method in a particular situation is the method that best suits the situation.

Before management could stand out as an independent field of knowledge, mankind has been accumulating management experience bit by bit for thousands of years. The first, simplest, forms of organizing joint labor existed at the stage of the primitive communal system. At this time, management was carried out jointly, by all members of the clan, tribe or community. The elders and leaders of clans and tribes personified the guiding principle of all activities of that period. The transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, harvesting, etc.) to production (a producing economy) became a starting point in the history of management.

Socrates (470-399 BC) was one of the first to characterize management as a special field of activity. He analyzed various forms of management, on the basis of which he proclaimed the principle of universality of management.

Plato (428-348 BC) proposed a classification of forms government controlled, made an attempt to delineate the functions of the governing bodies.

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) developed the theory and practice of command and control.

A serious contribution to the practice of organizing the management of large masses of people (troops) was made by the outstanding commanders Hannibal, Attila, Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, later Napoleon, and here in Russia - A. Suvorov, M. Kutuzov. It was the military sphere that was the area where progressive forms and methods of management were worked out, where the decisive advantages of organizing, organized association of people to achieve the set goal were discovered.

The general principles of military command and control can also be successfully used in managing the economy. History has left us outstanding examples of solving economic problems in ancient states: food security based on irrigation and the use of a canal system in Ancient Egypt; management of the construction of grandiose pyramids in the state of the Incas and in the same Egypt; construction of cities, defense and places of worship, striking in their size and high quality workmanship.

The greatest merit in the development of ideas about public administration belongs to A. Smith (1723-1790). He analyzed the various forms of division of labor, gave a description of the duties of the sovereign and the state.

The ideas of humanization of production management by R. Owen (1771 - 1858), as well as the need for training, improving working and living conditions for workers, are relevant in our time. In fact, what we call management today originated during the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century. The emergence of the factory as a primary type of production and the need to provide work for large groups of people led to the realization that individual owners were not in a position to oversee the activities of everyone. As a result, the best employees were selected and specially trained in how to represent the interests of the owner in the workplace. These people were the first managers.

The practice of management is as old as organizations themselves, but management has only become a recognized and widespread scientific discipline since 1910. Most researchers of that time believed that in order to be a successful manager, it was enough to have certain character traits and skills.

The first step towards considering management as a management science was made by F. Taylor (1856-1915). He became interested not in the qualities of an individual and the efficiency of his work, but in the efficiency of the organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management (1885-1925).

The main principles of this school are as follows:

• using scientific analysis to determine the best way to solve business problems;
• purposeful selection of workers, more than others suitable for performing tasks, their training;
• providing employees with resources;
• the use of financial incentives;
• separating planning from work itself.

It all boils down to the conclusion that if one can scientifically select people, train them, give them some incentives, and fuse work and person together, then it is possible to obtain a total productivity that exceeds the contribution made by the individual labor force.

The main merit of F. Taylor is that he developed the methodological foundations of labor rationing, standardized work operations, put into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of workers.

The formation of the science of management is also associated with the names of F. and L. Gilbert. They conducted research in the field of labor relations, improved Taylor's timing methods, and developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace.

The representative of the school of scientific management in Russia was OA Ermansky. them at the beginning of the 20th century. a theory of rational organization of labor and management was developed, the basis of which was the concept of psychophysiological optimism, i.e. maximum useful work per unit of energy expended.

The administrative (classical) school (1920-1950) was engaged in the study of the role and functions of the manager. Its representative - A. Fayol (1841-1925) divided the entire management process into five main functions that we still use in the theory of organization management. These are planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, motivation, control. Based on the teachings of Fayol in the 1920s. concept was formulated organizational structure firms.

Fayol's main contribution to management theory is that he considered management as a universal process consisting of interrelated functions that form a closed cycle. He also owns the development of principles for building the structure of the organization and managing employees.

In Russia in the 1920s-1930s. A. K. Gastev developed the theory of management processes, highlighting organizational, economic and socio-psychological methods, A. M. Ginzburg substantiated the need to combine central planning with commodity-money relations.

In a number of areas, Russian scientists were ahead of their foreign colleagues. Already in the 1920s. original studies of management functions (I. M. Burdyansky, N. A. Vitke), rationalization (P. L. Leder), linear and functional management structures (I. N. Butakov, V. V. Dobrynin, E. K. . Drezen).

At the turn of the 1930s. there was a school of human relations. It was based on the achievements of psychology and sociology; the focus is on the worker, not the job itself. E. Mayo (1880-1949) is considered to be the founder of this school. Among other scientists of this direction, one can single out M. P. Follet, who analyzed leadership styles and developed the theory of leadership, A. Maslow, who showed that the motives of people's actions are not economic forces, but various needs that cannot be represented in monetary terms.

In Russia, representatives of this school were S. D. Sgrel’bitsky (who studied the problems of managing a work collective) and I. S. Kannegiser (who studied the problems of leadership).

The emergence of the quantitative school is associated with the development and application of cybernetics, mathematical statistics, modeling, forecasting and computer technology in management. A key characteristic of the school is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive analysis with models, symbols, and quantitative meanings.

The founder of this school is the Soviet scientist L. V. Kantorovich (1912-1986), who proposed the general principles of linear programming. VS Nemchinov made a significant contribution to the development of statistical methods of economic management. AT modern conditions mathematical methods are used in almost all areas of management science.

Lecture plan:

1. The main stages of management development. Modern system views on governance abroad;

2. The main schools of management;

3. Scientific approaches to management;

4. Development of management in Russia. The old and new management paradigms in Russia.

1. The main stages of management development.

Today hardly anyone can say how and when the art and science of management originated. Management has always existed where people worked, and as a rule in three areas of human society:

– political- the need to establish and maintain order in groups;

– economic– the need to find, produce and distribute resources;

– defensive- protection from enemies and wild animals.

Even the most ancient societies required individuals who coordinated and directed the activities of groups (gathering food, building housing, etc.).

Considering the development of the theory and practice of management, several historical periods are distinguished:

I period - the ancient period(9-7 thousand years BC to 18 AD). Before separating into an independent field of knowledge, humanity has been accumulating management experience bit by bit for thousands of years. The simplest, rudimentary forms of streamlining and organizing joint labor existed at the stage of the primitive communal system. Elders, leaders of clans and tribes personified the guiding principle of all types of activity. approximately in the 9th-7th millennium there was a transition from the appropriating to the producing economy, which became the starting point in the emergence of management. Dr. Egypt has accumulated rich experience in managing the state economy. in 3000-2800 BC. a state administrative apparatus, sufficiently developed for that time, and its service layer (scribes, officials, etc.) was formed. One of the first to characterize management was Socrates (470-399 BC), he analyzed various forms of management, on the basis of which he proclaimed the principle of universality of management.

Plato (428-348 BC) gave a classification of forms of government, made attempts to distinguish between the functions of government.

A. Macedonian (356-323 BC) developed the theory and practice of command and control (defined the concept of strategy and tactics). Naturally, the examples given do not cover all events, but only draw attention to the main issues that interested society in the early stages of management development.

II period - industrial period(1776 - 1890) The greatest merit in the development of ideas about public administration in this period belongs to A. Smith. He is not only a representative of classical political economy, but also a specialist in the field of management, because conducted an analysis of various forms of division of labor, gave a description of the duties of the sovereign and the state.

R. Owen owns the ideas of humanizing management, recognizing the need for training, improving working conditions and living conditions of workers (which is still relevant today).

The revolution in the theory and practice of management is associated with the name of C. Babbage (1833), who developed the project of the "analytical engine" - a prototype of modern digital computing technology, with the help of which even then management decisions were made more quickly.

III period - the period of systematization(1856 - 1960). The science of management is in constant motion, new directions, schools, currents are being formed, the scientific apparatus is changing and improving, researchers and their views are changing.

What we now call management originated during the industrial revolution in the 19th century. The emergence of the factory as a primary type of production and the need to provide work for large groups of people meant that individual owners could no longer independently oversee the activities of all workers. For these purposes, they trained the best workers, trained so that they could represent the interests of the owners in the field, these were the first managers.

IV period - informational(1960–present). At present, to accept any management decision a huge amount of information is required, which is processed using mathematical techniques and computer technology. Management is considered as a logical process that can be expressed mathematically. Systematic, situational and process approaches have appeared (Kabushkin, pp. 7-10).

The modern system of views on management abroad (the main provisions were formulated in the 70-80s of the XX century). Basic provisions:

- an enterprise is an open system, considered in the unity of factors of the internal and external environment;

- focus not on output volumes, but on the quality of products and services, on consumer satisfaction;

- situational approach to management, recognition of the importance of speed and adequacy of response;

- the main source of profit - people with knowledge, and the conditions for realizing their potential;

- a management system focused on increasing the role of organizational culture and innovation, employee motivation and leadership style.

Causes of occurrence:

– STP, concentration of scientific and industrial potential;

- in the post-war period, industries that directly satisfy the needs of people, as well as industries based on advanced technologies, began to play a significant role in the world economy;

- production is increasingly focused on the specialized needs of consumers, i.e. to large markets, which led to the formation of a large number of small and medium-sized enterprises, to the complication of the system of relations between organizations, to the high importance of such business criteria as flexibility, dynamism and adaptability to the requirements of the external environment.

Management principles in the new paradigm:

- loyalty to employees;

- responsibility as a prerequisite for successful management;

- communications penetrating the form horizontally and vertically;

- the atmosphere in the company, which helps to reveal the abilities of employees;

- establishing the share of each employee in the overall results;

– timely response to changes in the environment;

- methods of working with people, ensuring their job satisfaction;

- the direct participation of managers in the work of groups at all stages as a condition for coordinated work;

- the ability to listen to everyone the manager encounters in his work;

- business ethics - the golden rule of management;

– honesty and trust in people;

– reliance on the fundamental foundations of management: quality, costs, service, innovations, resource control, personnel;

– the quality of personal work and its continuous improvement. (Management in schemes, p. 8)

2. The main schools of management.

School of Scientific Management (rationalist school)(1885-1920) is associated with the works of Friedrich Taylor, Frank and Lilia Gilbreth, Henry Gantt, G. Emerson, G. Ford.

School methodology:

1) the founders of the school believed that using observation, measurements, logic and analysis, many manual labor operations could be improved;

2) the first phase of the methodology was the analysis of the content of the work and the definition of its main components. Thus, the Gilbreths studied operations using a movie camera in combination with micro timing, fixing intervals of up to 1/200 of a second, to determine the time required for a particular movement in performing work.

Attitude to the human factor:

1) systematic stimulation of employees with the aim of their interest in the growth of labor productivity and production volumes;

2) the introduction of breaks in production, incl. for relax;

3) the establishment of feasible production standards, and additional payments to those who exceeded them;

4) recognized the importance of selecting people physically and intellectually appropriate for the work performed, training workers.

Separation of management functions from work:

1) representatives of the school advocated the separation of managerial functions of thinking and planning from the actual performance of work;

2) management work is a specialty, and the organization will benefit if each group of employees focuses on what they do most successfully;

3) management began to be recognized as a separate area, although representatives of the school dealt with the problems of improving labor efficiency at a level below the managerial one.

Administrative (classical) school(1920-1950) is associated with the work of Henri Fayol ( head of a French coal mining company), Lindal Urwick ( management consultant in England), James Mooney ( Vice President of General Motors), E. Reilly, L. Gyulik, W. Newman, E. Allen, M. Weber.

The purpose of the school– creation of universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

1) associated with the development of a rational system of management of the organization. Fayol considered management as a universal process consisting of several interrelated functions. By defining the core functions of a business as finance, manufacturing and marketing, the "classics" were confident that they could determine the best way to divide an organization into groups and subgroups.

2) related to the construction of the structure of the organization and management of employees. Rational bureaucracy by Max Weber.

School features:

1) representatives of the school had direct experience as senior managers in big business;

2) their research was aimed at improving the efficiency of the entire organization;

3) representatives of the school tried to look at the organization from the v.z. broad perspective, trying to identify common characteristics and patterns of organizations.

14 management principles of A. Fayol:

1) division of labor. Performing work that is larger in volume and better in quality, with the same efforts, by reducing the number of goals to which attention and efforts must be directed;

2) powers and responsibilities. Authority gives the right to give an order, responsibility is its opposite;

3) discipline. Assumes obedience and respect for the agreements reached between the company and its employees, the fairness of the application of sanctions;

4) unity of command. Receiving orders from only one immediate supervisor;

5) unity of direction. Each group operating within the same goal must be united by a single plan and have one leader;

6) subordination of personal interests to common ones. The interests of one employee should not prevail over the interests of the company;

7) staff remuneration. To ensure the loyalty and support of employees, they must receive a fair salary;

8) centralization. Ensuring the most correct balance between centralization and decentralization;

9) scalar chain, those. a number of people in leadership positions, from the person occupying the highest position down to the grassroots manager, should not abandon the hierarchical system unnecessarily, but maintaining the hierarchy is harmful when it is detrimental to business;

10) order. A place for everything, everything in its place;

11) justice- a combination of kindness and justice;

12) job stability for staff. High staff turnover reduces the efficiency of the organization;

13) initiative. Means developing a plan and ensuring its successful implementation;

14) corporate spirit. Union is strength, and it is the result of staff harmony.

School of Human Relations(1930-1950) and behavioral sciences(1950–present).

Representatives of the school of human relations: Mary Parker Follet, Elton Mayo, Abraham Maslow. Representatives of the (later) behavioral direction of the school: K. Ajiris, R. Likert, D. McGregor, F. Herzber, C. Bernard and others.

Features of the school of human relations:

1) awareness of the human factor as the main element of an effective organization (unlike previous schools);

2) E. Mayo's experiments (Hawthorne) opened a new direction in control theory. Well-designed work operations and good remuneration do not always lead to an increase in labor productivity, in contrast to the forces that arise in the course of interaction between people;

3) later studies (A. Maslow and other psychologists) made it possible to understand the causes of this phenomenon. The motives of people's actions are not economic forces, but various needs that can only be partially satisfied with the help of money (communication, respect, self-expression).

Features of the development of views on management in the behavioral sciences:

1) representatives of this direction studied various aspects of social interaction, motivation, nature of power, authority, leadership, organizational structure, communications, changes in the content of work and KTZ;

2) assistance to the employee in understanding his own capabilities based on the application of the concepts of behavioral sciences to the construction and management of organizations;

3) the main goal of the school is to increase the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of using its human resources;

4) the main thing - the correct application of the science of behavior will always increase the efficiency of both the employee and the organization.

School of Management Science (Quantitative Methods)(1950

- present time).

Representatives: R. Akoff, L. von Bertalanffy, S. Beer, F. Goldberger, D. Forsrester, R. Luce, L. Klein.

School features:

1) the formation of the school is associated with the emergence of cybernetics and operations research. Initially, operations research was reduced to developing ways to quantitatively analyze the problem as a whole without isolating its parts. At its core, operations research is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization;

2) after the problem statement, the research team develops a model of the situation. A model is a form of representation of reality that simplifies it, makes it easier to understand its complexities (map, globe). After creating the model, the variables are given quantitative characteristics (values), which allows you to objectively compare and describe each variable and the relationship between them;

3) a key characteristic of management science is the replacement of verbal reasoning with models, symbols and quantitative values. The computer allowed operations researchers to construct models of increasing complexity. These are models found in management: resource allocation, inventory management, queuing, development strategy selection, etc.

Decision theory– further development of the ideas of the management school.

Main directions:

1) development of methods for mathematical modeling of the processes of development and decision-making in organizations;

2) creation of algorithms for developing optimal solutions using the theory of statistical decisions, game theory, etc.;

3) development of quantitative applied and abstract models of economic phenomena, incl. models of reproduction, models of the balance of costs and output, models of forecasting scientific, technical and economic development.

3. Scientific approaches to management.

Currently, there are various approaches to management. The most famous and widely used:

1. systemic. Allows you to consider the organization as a system consisting of a certain number of interconnected elements. Systems theory was originally applied in exact sciences and technology. It has been used in management since the late 50s, which was the success of the school of management science. The founder was L. von Bertalanffy. The starting point of the system approach is the concept of a goal, the presence of which is the most important feature of the organization, in which this system differs from others. Systems approach is not a set of any principles for managers, but way of thinking in relation to organizations and management.

System- this is some integrity, consisting of separate interconnected parts (elements), each of which contributes to the characteristics of the whole ( all organizations are systems in control).

System types:

- closed - have rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are independent of its external environment;

- open - characterized by interaction with the environment (external) environment and are able to adapt (adapt) to it;

Any system consists of subsystems. Subsystem- a large component of complex systems, which itself is a system. In an organization, subsystems are departments, management levels, social and technical components of the organization.

Model of the organization as an open system:

a) the organization receives from the external environment: information, capital, human resources, materials - these components are called entrances;

b) in the course of its activities, the organization processes these inputs, converting them into products or services - this is exits;

c) if the management system is effective, then in the course of the transformation process it turns out added cost of inputs, as a result, many additional outputs appear, such as profit, increase in market share, increase in sales, growth of the organization, etc.

2. process approach . It was first proposed by adherents of the school of administrative management, who were trying to define the functions of management. However, they viewed them as independent of each other. The process approach considers them as interconnected. Management is considered as a process, because working to achieve goals with the help of others is a series of continuous interrelated activities. These activities, each of which is also a process, are called managerial functions. The sum of all functions is the control process.

Exist different points of view on management functions:

Fayol singled out five functions: - prediction and planning; - organization; - order; - coordination; - control;

b) in modern literature, the following management functions are distinguished: planning, organization, command, motivation, leadership, control, coordination, communication, research, evaluation, decision-making, regulation;

c) in general view the management process can be represented as consisting of the following functions: planning (preparation and adoption of a management decision); organization; motivation; control. These functions are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision making. Management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity, suggesting the possibility of influencing individual employees and groups, so that they work towards achieving the goals that are necessary for the organization to achieve success.

3. situational approach (thinking about organizational problems and their solutions).

Features of the situational approach:

a) the possibility of direct application of science to specific situations and conditions;

b) the central point is situation- a specific set of circumstances that affect the organization in given time;

c) managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation;

d) the approach attempts to link specific techniques and concepts to specific situations in order to achieve organizational goals more effectively;

e) The approach exploits situational differences between and within organizations. The manager needs to determine what are the significant situation variables and how they affect the performance of the organization.

Methodology of the situational approach to management:

- the manager should be familiar with professional management tools that have proven effective;

- the manager must be able to foresee the likely consequences (both positive and negative) from the application of a given technique or concept in a particular situation;

The manager must be able to correctly interpret the situation. it is necessary to correctly determine which factors are most important in a given situation and what is the likely effect of a change in one or more variables;

- the manager must be able to select specific techniques that would cause the least negative effect for specific situations, thereby ensuring the achievement of the organization's goals in the most effective way.

4. Development of management in Russia. Modern system of views on management in Russia.

Development of management in the 17th century. The beginning of the development of management in Russia was laid in the 17th century, when the process of merging regions, lands and principalities began. There was a merger of fragmented regional markets into a single nationwide market.

A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin (1605-1680) played an important role in the development of the system of state administration. He made an attempt to introduce urban self-government in the western border cities of Russia. Thus, A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin is considered one of the first Russian managers who raised the issue of developing not only strategic, but also tactical (at the micro level) management.

A special era in the development of Russian management is Peter's reforms to improve economic management.The range of managerial actions of Peter I is very wide - from changing the chronology to creating a new state administrative apparatus. Detailing and concretizing the administrative aspects of the period of the reign of Peter I, we can distinguish the following transformations in the central and local government:

- development of large-scale industry and state support for handicraft industries;

– promoting the development of agriculture;

– strengthening financial system;

– activation of the development of foreign and domestic trade.

Legislative acts of Peter I - decrees, regulations, instructions and control over their implementation - regulated various areas of state activity, in fact it was state management.

The managerial ideas of IT Pososhkov (1652-1726) also deserve attention. To original ideas which include the division of wealth into material and immaterial. Under the first he meant the wealth of the state (treasury) and the people, under the second - effective management country and the existence of fair laws. The principles of I.T. Pososhkov on improving economic management were based on the decisive role of the state in managing economic processes. He was a supporter of strict regulation of economic life.

Development of managerial thought in the 18th century. First quarter of the 18th century was the period of Peter the Great reforming the management of the economy, both at the macro and micro levels. The control system created by Peter I was irreversible.

The ideas of public administration were reflected in the works of A.P. Volynsky (1689-1740). A consistent ideologist of serfdom was V.N. Tatishchev (1686-1750). In the field of managing the economic affairs of Russia, VN Tatishchev attached particular importance to the management of financial policy. He believed that the state was obliged not to observe economic processes, but to actively regulate them in the interests of Russia.

In the second half of the 18th century management thought developed in the spirit of the reforms of Catherine II. In order to improve the management of the Russian economy, at the direction of Catherine II, the “Institution for the Administration of the Provinces of the Russian Empire” was published.

Features of the management of the Russian economy in the 19th century. By the beginning of the 19th century. the impossibility of managing the Russian State by the old methods, the need for reforms was realized by the highest authorities.

The main transformations of economic management at the beginning of the 19th century. occurred during the reign of Alexander I. In 1801, a manifesto was issued on the establishment of ministries, which were built on the basis of personal power and responsibility.

M.M. Speransky (1772-1839) played a special role in the development of management in Russia. He saw the purpose of the transformations in giving the autocracy an external form of a constitutional monarchy based on the force of law. MM Speransky proposed to divide the system of power into three parts: legislative, executive and judicial.

Those. legislative issues were to be under the jurisdiction of the State Duma, the courts - under the jurisdiction of the Senate, state administration - under the jurisdiction of the ministries responsible to the Duma.

In 1864, Alexander II approved the "Regulations on provincial and district zemstvo institutions", which approved all-estate self-government.

The development of management in the 20th century. At the beginning of the 20th century managerial transformations were carried out under the leadership of such personalities as S.Yu. Witte (1849-1915) and A.S. Stolypin (1862-1911).

The reform program of A.S. Stolypin affected all branches of public administration and was designed according to the plan of its author for 20 years. It was mainly about the decentralization of government in Russia.

Russian specialists made their first steps in the field of scientific management long before F. Taylor. So, in 1860-1870. employees of the Moscow Higher Technical School ( now MSTU im. N. E. Bauman) developed a methodology for the rationalization of labor movements, which received the "Medal of Excellence" at the World Trade Exhibition in Vienna in 1873. This technique immediately began to be actively introduced by English industrialists.

In 1908, collections of translations of foreign publications in the field of scientific management "Administrative and Technical Library" began to appear in Russia, the initiators of which were the popularizers of Taylorism, mining engineer L. Levenstern and teacher of the Artillery Academy A. Paykin. In a number of higher educational institutions countries began teaching disciplines related to management.

Soviet management dates back to November 7, 1917. In search of non-capitalist forms of management at the micro and macro levels, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) carried out a number of measures, the main of which were the following:

- introduction of workers' control;

- creation Supreme Council National economy;

– Formation of local economic management bodies.

The period of "war communism" is characterized by directive-command methods of management from top to bottom. During the period of the new economic policy, three levels were distinguished from the standpoint of management - the highest, the middle and the lowest.

In the early 20s. The "Basic Laws of the Scientific Organization of Production and NOT" were proposed, which in many respects retain their significance today:

1. the law of least with a chain connection - the final volume of output, sequentially processed in several departments, is determined by the capabilities of the weakest of them, no matter how strong the rest;

2. law of mutual circuit consists in the fact that first subdivisions of the main production are created, and then "auxiliary" ones, working for them and for each other, and after satisfying internal needs - for the side;

3. law of rhythm, according to which the rational functioning of the economy is impossible without the rhythmic work of both production and individual workers;

4. the law of parallelism and sequence of work - private production and labor processes must be carried out not only sequentially, but also in parallel, so that the overall final result is not delayed by those who are lagging behind;

5. the law of the scope of work - the burden on people should correspond to their real capabilities; in other words, it is not necessary to put two people where one can do the job;

6. law of real conditions - it is necessary, when organizing any activity, to set only achievable goals, based on real conditions, existing needs and possible results.

The most fruitful in the development of domestic management thought were the 20s, when during the NEP period a certain freedom was allowed not only for entrepreneurship, but also for scientific thought in a number of areas not directly related to the problems of politics and ideology.

According to the researchers, at that time two main groups of management concepts were clearly identified:

1) organizational and technical- these are the concepts of "organizational management" by A.A. Bogdanov, "physiological optimism" by O.A. Yermansky, "narrow base" by A.K. Gastev, "industrial interpretation" by E.F. Rozmirovich;

2) social- this is the concept of "organizational activity" by P.M. Kerzhentsev, "the social and labor concept of production management" by M.A. Vitke and the theory of "administrative capacity" by F.R. Dunaevsky.

Subsequently, in management research, the sectoral or national economic approach began to prevail, and at the level of individual organizations, research was aimed at solving technical problems. It was only in the 1960s that interest in the primary economic link began to revive. The impetus for this was two circumstances: - the widespread introduction automated systems enterprise management; - deployment of "Kosygin" reforms.

In the course of these reforms, enterprises were given a certain autonomy within the framework of a centralized plan, based on the introduction of cost accounting and economic management methods. The idea of ​​an integrated approach to management and the concept of the economic mechanism as a single organizational, economic and social management system were formed.

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Content

• Introduction
• 1.4 School of Management Science
• 2.1 Process approach
• 2.2 Systems approach
• 2.3 Situational approach
• Conclusion

Introduction

Management as a scientific discipline has come a long and controversial path of development, and it must be considered taking into account historical experience, goals and objectives that were set at different stages of its development. The development of the theory and practice of management was mainly evolutionary, through the continuous accumulation of experience, reflecting the changes that took place in society, the economy and the entire system of socio-economic relations, and has several millennia.

Back in the last century, L. Morgan wrote "The tribal organization seems to us one of the oldest and most widespread institutions of mankind. It was an almost universal basis for the social structure of ancient society." He comes to the conclusion that it is the tribal organization that laid the foundations of management. However, the first works on the scientific generalization of the accumulated experience and the formation of the foundations of the science of management appeared only at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th centuries. This was due to the needs of the industry, which increasingly acquired such specific features as mass production and mass marketing, large-scale organization in the form of large corporations and joint-stock companies, focusing on large-capacity markets. Enterprises began to feel the need for a rational organization of production and labor, a clear and interrelated work all divisions and services, managers and performers, and this required scientifically based principles, norms and standards.

The relevance of the topic is seen in the fact that it is best to understand the logic of the development of modern management problems by familiarizing yourself with the works of classics in the field of management.

Target: trace the evolution of the development of management theory, throughconsiderationniaschools of management and approachovto the study of management problems.

The work consists of an introduction, 2 chapters, a conclusion and a list of references. The total amount of work ____ pages.

1. The evolution of management theory

In the first half of the twentieth century, four distinct schools of managerial thought developed. Chronologically, they can be listed in the following order: scientific management school, administrative scale, psychology and human relations scale, and management science scale (or quantitative school). The most staunch adherents of each of these directions believed at one time that they had managed to find the key to the most effective achievement of the goals of the organization. More recent research and unsuccessful attempts to apply the theoretical findings of schools in practice have shown that many answers to management questions were only partially correct in limited situations. And yet, each of these schools has made significant and tangible contributions to the field. Even the most progressive modern organizations still use certain concepts and techniques that have arisen within these schools.

1.1 School of Scientific Management

Scientific management was extended from 1885 to 1920. Principal representatives Frederick Winslow Taylor, Frank and Lily Gilbreth, Henry Gantt. Prior to Taylor, productivity was driven by the "carrot" principle—how much you do, you get. However, this approach to the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. exhausted himself. With the development of industry, management could not be based on such a primitive basis.

The founder of this school of management is Frederick Winslow Taylor, who came up with the idea of ​​organizing work, which involves the development of numerous rules, laws and formulas. These rules will take the place of the personal judgment of the individual worker, and which can only be usefully applied after the statistical accounting, measurement, and so on, of their operation has been made. In 1911 he published the book Principles of Scientific Management. In it, Taylor, analyzing the production process, developed the doctrine of the intensification of labor operations in order to increase labor productivity. In particular, he studied work operations in detail and changed them in such a way as to eliminate unnecessary, unproductive movements. The merit of F. Taylor was the desire to oppose the scientific approach to established traditions, approach the labor process as a system and give the scientific basis for the organization and regulation of human labor.

For the first time, instead of the traditional linear management system, a functional system was proposed, which offered the presence of a team of administrators responsible for various aspects of the organization of labor.F. Taylor first made an attempt to separate some creative functions, such as thinking, planning, from the actual execution of work. At the same time, Taylor interpreted the main tasks of enterprise management in a peculiar way: "The main task of enterprise management should be to ensure maximum profit for the entrepreneur in conjunction with maximum welfare for each employee employed in the enterprise." Prior to Taylor, these tendencies were thought to be mutually exclusive. However, Taylor connected these trends as interrelated, not competing. At the same time, he pointed out that they could be connected only if the highest labor productivity was achieved, by which he understood the maximum possible return of each worker.

Taylor also explored factors that hinder productivity, such as poor organization of work, crude and primitive methods of production, and for the first time tried to determine what kind of best type management. So, F. Taylor, as well as his associates F. Gilberg and G. Grant, were representatives of the so-called school of scientific management. However, they studied mainly production and were engaged in increasing the efficiency of labor in the lens of management.

The main task of management according to Taylor is to identify more rational methods of organizing labor, taking into account the specifics of the activity. Within the framework of this school, 4 basic principles of the scientific organization of labor were formulated:

it is necessary to create a scientific approach to the implementation of each element of the work;

apply a scientific approach to the selection, training of employees;

for the successful operation of the organization, cooperation and cooperation of the administration and employees is needed;

it is necessary to carry out the division of responsibility between managers and workers.

The works of F. Taylor and his followers are devoted to management issues at its lower level, where there is a direct connection of the labor force with the means and objects of labor. Management issues at a higher level received little attention. The rapid development of industry in the first quarter of the twentieth century gave impetus to the evolution of views on management problems and the formation of a new approach.

1.2 Administrative School of Management

The next stage in the development of management was an attempt by scientists to create a theory of social production management. The development of Taylor's ideas was continued by the outstanding French engineer Henri Fayol and Heinrich Emmerson (1920-1950). They have already talked not only about industrial management, but also about management government agencies. To this end, they tried to formulate management principles that would be sufficiently universal and contribute to the success of any organization. the main objective of this school: to create universal principles of management, following which will lead the organization to success.

To manage according to A. Fayol means to lead the enterprise to the goal, trying to make the best use of its resources. He singled out such functions as foresight, i.e. study of the future, and establishment of a program of action, organization, coordination (i.e., the unification of all actions and efforts), control, management (i.e., activation of the potential of labor).

In this regard, A. Fayol considered management as a process consisting of several interrelated functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. In addition, he was the first to set the task of building an organization structure based on the principle of unity of command, according to which each employee should receive orders from only one boss and report only to him alone.

In the work "General and Industrial Administration" Fayol outlined the scope of the administration, which can be represented in the form of six areas:

1) technical (technological) activity;

2) commercial activity (purchase, sale, exchange);

3) financial activity (search for capital and its effective use);

4) protective activity (protection of property and person);

5) accounting activities (inventory, balance sheets, costs, statistics);

6) administration (affects only personnel, without directly affecting either materials or mechanisms).

The main function of management, its most important part, Fayol believed administration.

The main merit of A. Fayol is that he first expressed the idea of ​​the need to separate the issues of organization and management into an independent theory of a universal nature, in fact, laying the foundation for professional management. His research not only improved the system of F. Taylor, but also led to the division of management problems into two areas:

organization and management of directly technological and labor processes (organization of production, organization and regulation of labor);

management of production systems (the theory of production management).

He created an "administrative science", which was based on 14 provisions-principles, the provisions of which are not only flexible, but allow the possibility of introducing new provisions. So in modern literature, management functions most often include planning, organization, management, accounting, control and analysis. The approach to understanding this or that function changed, but in general, their composition, determined by the representatives of the classical school, remained almost unchanged.

However, the classical school, having gone through certain stages of development, having perfectly studied the technical side of the production process, has largely exhausted its capabilities. Therefore, instead of a "specialized task" as the goal of management, a "school of human relations" began to form, which studied human behavior in the production environment and the dependence of labor productivity on the moral and psychological state of the performer.

1.3 School of Human Relations

The next stage in the development of managerial thought is characterized by the development of the concept of human relations ( 1930-1950). This concept as a theory was developed back in the 20-30s in the United States. This was due to the transition to economic activity from extensive to intensive methods and the growing importance of the human factor. The most famous representatives of this school are Mary Parker Follet and Elton Mayo.

It is believed that E. Mayo laid the foundation for this direction, who came to the sensational discovery at that time of the fact that not only material factors, but also psychological and partly social ones, influence the productivity of the performer. Finally, they drew attention to the fact that a person is, first of all, a person, and he must be managed differently than other factors of production. He drew his conclusions on the basis of the famous Hawthorne experiment, during which he studied the influence of various factors, such as lighting, location of workplaces, etc., on labor productivity. It was found that these factors affect labor productivity less than the communication of workers with each other, their contacts in the process of work. This gave rise to the social aspects of management. E. Mayo made a number of conclusions:

man is a social being, he needs to work in a group;

the rigid hierarchy of the bureaucratic system is contrary to the nature of man, he gravitates towards freedom;

leaders should focus on people, not products;

integration in groups is needed, i.e. creation of an appropriate psychological climate in groups.

If Taylor saw the key to solving the problem of management in the rigid regulation of the production process, then Mayo put human relations at the forefront. A person has always responded to the influence of the group, because he is more responsive to people of equal status than to leadership. Hence, if everyone in the group is busy achieving the goal, then this is much more motivation than control coming from above.

Thus, representatives of this school recommended the use of human relations management techniques, including more effective actions of immediate superiors, consultations with employees and providing them with the opportunity to communicate at work; apply in management the following factors Keywords: motivation, group dynamics, communication, study of people's behavior in an organization, etc.

1.4 School of Management Science

The development of mathematics and computer technology laid the foundation for a new direction in control theory, called "control science" ( 1950s - Nowadays). It is based on a quantitative approach, which involves the use of scientific methods for analyzing the functioning of production systems and solving management problems using a mathematical apparatus for solving problems, computer technology and information systems.

Supporters this direction, which originated during the Second World War, set themselves the task of studying the operational problems of the organization using quantitative methods. This approach is sometimes referred to as operational or operations research. Operations research, at its core, is the application of scientific research methods to the operational problems of an organization. A significant contribution to the development of this approach was made by K. Churchman, R. Akof, L. Bertalanffy. The application of this approach, according to its adherents, is possible under four conditions:

management problems are so complex that managers need help in analyzing a large number of variables;

a large number of production factors are easier to quantify by means of management science, and economic indicators are used as guidelines in decision-making;

management science is characterized by the use of mathematical models to get an idea of ​​the real state of affairs and ways to improve the situation;

the complexity of control problems and mathematical apparatus requires the use of computers for processing and analyzing large amounts of information.

After studying the situation and posing a particular management problem, the operations research team develops a situation model (situational model). A model is a form of representation of reality. Typically, a model simplifies reality and represents it in the abstract. A road map, for example, makes it easier to see spatial relationships on the ground. Without such a model, it would be much more difficult to get to your destination. You would have to rely on trial and error. Similarly, models developed in operations research simplify complex problems by reducing the number of variables to be considered to a manageable amount.

The effectiveness of the application of models depends primarily on the reliability of the initial data, the limitation in obtaining information, poor application in practice, and excessively high cost.

The use of quantitative methods and mathematical models has found application in connection with the emergence and widespread use of computers in the field of management and development of information systems. The computer has allowed operations researchers to construct mathematical models of increasing complexity that come closest to reality and are therefore more accurate.

Key characteristic of management science is the replacement of verbal reasoning and descriptive) analysis with models, symbols and quantitative values. The contribution of this school to management theory is as follows:

Deepening understanding of complex management problems through the development and application of models.

Development of quantitative methods in solving management problems by managers in complex economic situations.

2. Approaches to the study of management problems

The above schools laid the scientific foundation for management theory, on the basis of which new approaches were formed.

2.1 Process approach

The concept of the process approach, which considers management as a continuous series of interrelated managerial functions, marked a major turn in the development of managerial thought. It is widely used even today. For the first time, the process approach was proposed by supporters of the administrative (functional) school of management, who developed management functions. However, they considered these functions as independent of each other. In contrast to this view, the process approach considers management functions as interrelated. Management is not seen as a one-time action, but as a process consisting of a series of continuous, interrelated actions. Each of these activities is a process in itself - they are called managerial functions. Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated actions.

The general characteristic of the process approach is based on the combination of the most important types management activities into a small number of functions that are applicable to all organizations. Management divides the management process into four primary functions: planning, organization, motivation and control. These management functions are interconnected by connecting communication and decision-making processes. The management function is considered as an independent area of ​​activity in management.

Through planning, common goals are set and the efforts of all members of the organization to achieve these goals are coordinated. At the same time, the continuity of the planning process must be ensured for two reasons. Firstly, in order to achieve certain goals, the organization sets new goals for itself and, secondly, because of the constant uncertainty of the future due to environmental changes and possible mistakes made in the initial setting of goals.

The function of the organization is to create a structure for the effective distribution of tasks between employees, which should ensure the implementation of the enterprise's strategy to achieve its goals and the implementation of plans in cooperation with environment. The function of motivation is to determine the needs of the employee to provide conditions for meeting these needs through good work.

At the same time, the task of the motivation function is to ensure that employees perform work in accordance with the plan and the duties delegated to them. The control function is considered as a process of providing conditions for achieving the goals of the organization. The bottom line is that during the production process, deviations from a given work plan may occur. Finding and eliminating deviations in the work on the implementation of the plan, before serious damage is done to the organization, is the main task of the control function.

Decision making is the leader's choice of one of the alternative options for possible actions indicating what and how to plan, organize, motivate and control.

Communication is the process of exchanging information between people. Since an organization is a structured type of relationship between people, functioning depends on the quality of communications.

The management process is based on the implementation of interdependent management functions through decision making and communication.

2.2 Systems approach

With all the differences in approaches and the choice of objects of the organization, they have something in common, and this common use is the use of a universal management toolkit. It is known that differences usually come to light as the analysis of phenomena becomes more detailed, and the general is already manifested at a higher level of abstraction. Achieving this level allows a systematic approach to organization and management.

The system methodology in management was recognized and widely used already in the second half of the 20th century. Scientific and technological progress, which gave a powerful impetus to the broad automation of production processes, began to exert its revolutionary influence on management processes as well. Cybernetics turned out to be in demand - a theory that explained many patterns of autoregulation in biology, physics, and technology. The possibilities of applying these regularities in the theory and practice of managing socio-economic organizations have opened up.

The system approach has entered the modern theory of organization and management as a special methodology of scientific analysis and thinking. The essence of the system approach lies in the idea of ​​the organization as a system, i.e. set of interrelated elements. A characteristic feature of such a collection is that its properties as a system are not simply reduced to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements.

The quality of the organization of the system is usually expressed in the synergy effect. It manifests itself in the fact that the result of the functioning of the system as a whole is higher (lower) than the sum of the results of the same name of the individual elements that make up the aggregate. In practice, this means that from the same elements we can obtain systems of different or identical properties, but of different efficiency, depending on how these elements are interconnected, i.e. how the system will be organized.

A feature of the systems approach is that it does not contain a set of any guiding principles. The systems approach says only that the organization consists of a large number of interconnected subsystems and is an open system that interacts with the environment.

2.3 Situational approach

The situational approach has made a significant contribution to management theory, revealing the possibility of direct application of theoretical provisions to specific conditions and situations. It is not a set of rules, but rather a way of thinking about the organization's problems and how to solve them.

The situational approach does not reject the achievements of other approaches and schools of management. It retains the core concepts and approaches that apply to all organizations. But recognizing that the overall management process is the same, the situational approach argues that the specific techniques that are used in practice to achieve the goals of the enterprise.

The situational approach has become a logical continuation of the systematic approach to management. The system approach made it possible to determine that the organization is an open system that actively interacts with the external environment.

Production systems, as systems of an open type, have input and output channels that allow you to interact with the external environment. According to the situational approach, the entire organization within the enterprise is a response to environmental factors of various nature.

The situation is central to this approach. It means a specific set of circumstances that have a significant impact on the work of the enterprise in a given period of time. Using this approach, managers can better understand which techniques will be most helpful in achieving the goals of the organization in a particular situation. The number of environmental factors affecting the production system is so great that only the main ones are singled out from this variety. Different authors point to a different number of factors influencing management. But most of them believe that there are no more than a dozen factors of internal and external variables that are essential for successful enterprise management.

The situational approach, incorporating all the advantages of previous schools and approaches, expanded the practical application of systems theory by identifying the main internal and external variables that affect production systems. According to this approach, all known concepts and techniques should be applicable to specific situations. The situational approach, or, as it is often called, situational thinking, is currently considered the best way to make management effective.

Conclusion

Summarizing this work, we briefly note the following.

Management is the oldest area of ​​human activity. It exists as long as people live and work in communities. Only thanks to coordinated actions people could develop and create huge material and social values.

Actually, the theory of management as a science (as opposed to its definition) arose at the end of the last century and has since undergone significant changes. By this time, there were 4 main schools of managerial thought. Chronologically they can be listed in the following order:

1) school of scientific management;

2) administrative school;

3) school of human relations;

4) School of Management Science or Quantitative School. The goal that unites them is to find the key to the effective achievement of the goals of the organization.

It should be noted that each of these schools has made a significant contribution to the field of management. Based on these schools, new approaches to management were formed.

One of them - process - considers management as a process , because the work of achieving goals with the help of others is not some one-time action, but a series of continuous interconnected actions. Process management is considered a process as the total sum of all functions. There are 4 primary functions in the management process: planning, organization, motivation and control. The essence of the system approach lies in the idea of ​​the organization as a system - a set of interrelated elements, a characteristic feature of which is that its properties as a system cannot be reduced simply to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements. A systems approach is not a set of some guidelines or principles for managers - it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management. The central point of the situational approach is the situation, i.e. a specific set of circumstances that strongly affect the organization at that particular time.

Bibliography

1. Belyatsky, N.P. Personnel Management: tutorial/ N.P. Belyatsky, S.E. Velesko, P. Reisch. - Minsk: Ecoperspective, 2004. - 320 p.

2. Ivanov, L.B. Fundamentals of management: the evolution of managerial thought. Textbook / L.B. Ivanov. - St. Petersburg: Publishing House "Piter", 2008. - 430 p.

3. Karpov A.V. Psychology of management / A.V. Karpov / - M.: Gardariki, 2005. - 584 p.

4. Quesco, R.B. Organization of management and administration in social work study guide / R.B. Quesko, K.N. Muravskaya, S.B. Kvesko and others - Tomsk: TPU Publishing House, 2009. - 144 p.

5. Organization management: Textbook / Ed. A.G. Porshneva, Z.P. Rumyantseva, N.A. Salomatina. - M.: Infra-M, 2006. - 669 p.

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