Implementation of the project approach. Project approach in public administration. Project as a market product

Borisov Sergey Alexandrovich, postgraduate student, assistant of the Department of Financial Management of Enterprises, Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University named after R.E. Alekseeva, Russia

Plekhanova Anna Feliksovna, doctor of economic sciences, professor, head. Department of Financial Management of Enterprises, Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University named after R.E. Alekseeva, Russia

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Sources:

1. Project management: a textbook / Clifford F. Gray, Eric W. Larson. - M.: Publishing house "DIS", 2003. - 528 p.
2. Project management: textbook / Mazur I.I., Shapiro V.D., Olderogge N.G. - M .: Publishing house "Omega - L", 2008. - 405 p.
3. Guide to the body of knowledge on project management (A Guide to PMBOK). – M.: 2004
4. Modeling, analysis, reorganization and automation of business processes: textbook / Kalyanov G.N. - M.: Publishing House "Finance and Statistics", 2006.
5. IDEFO functional modeling methodology. Guidance document. Official edition. Gosstandart of Russia. - M.: IPK Standards Publishing House, 2000. - 62 p.
6. Learn to see business processes: textbook / M. Rother, J. Shook. - M .: Publishing house "Alpina", 2001.

“Of all the difficulties that NASA faced in sending a man to the moon, management was probably the most challenging task»

— Roger Launis, NASA Historian

Throughout history, mankind has accumulated an impressive list of successfully implemented complex projects. From building the Pyramids at Giza to sending a man to the moon, the most daring human undertakings required the coordinated work of thousands of people. And this implies complex system project management.

And although only a few of us will face tasks of this magnitude, most of the readers of this blog will experience project management in one way or another. By 2020 PMIs are estimated to be there - and many other professionals often have to manage mini-projects, at least on a personal level.

talking in simple words Project management is all about managing and organizing everything that is needed to achieve a goal – on time and within budget, of course. Be up to develop new software holding marketing company or landing a man on Mars - project management allows you to succeed.

All projects are different. There is no perfect project management system for every type of project. Also, there is no system that would suit every leader and be convenient for all team members. However, during the existence of project management, many effective approaches, methods and standards have been created that can be adopted. We will talk about the most popular of them today.

The developed approaches are very different from each other. They differ in scope, detail, self-sufficiency and formalization. In the title, we called them "methods" for convenience, but in fact, the article presents the standards, concepts, methods and frameworks that are used in project management. The purpose of this article is to give the broadest overview of existing approaches in project management.

In this article, we will look at:

• Classic project management
• Agile
• Scrum
• Lean
• Kanban
• SixSigma
• PRINCE2

And before looking at specific methods, let's answer the obvious question - “Why do we need project management systems and methods at all?”- let's consider, of course, briefly, the history of project management and define the basic terms of project management.

Why "project management"?

The names of Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin will forever go down in history as symbols of one of the greatest achievements of mankind - landing a man on the moon. However, the main contributors to this event were the 400,000 NASA employees and the 20,000 companies and universities that worked together on the Apollo mission.

In 1961, John F. Kennedy set the task of landing a man on a satellite of the Earth and returning him back - despite the fact that at that time NASA sent a man into space for only 15 minutes. Such an ambitious goal required an incredible amount of resources, cooperation, innovation and planning.

As the NASA book Managing the Moon Program states, the main problem was not “ what to do?", and in that, " how to do so much in such a short time? According to Dr. Max Faget, head of engineering at the Lyndon Johnson Space Center (The Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, JSC), then NASA had no idea how to put all the necessary actions in 10 years. So the first step was to “break the project down into manageable steps.”

Then it was important to speed up the execution of each individual phase and make sure that the teams and companies working in each phase communicate effectively with each other and deliver results on time. This task was entrusted to Dr. George E. Muller, who managed every part of the Apollo project, from the White House to the supplier of the smallest part. To make it easier to control the project, he decided to break the project into 5 areas: Program Control, Systems Engineering, Testing, Reliability and Quality, and Flight Operations. The control scheme for the Apollo program is shown in Figure 1.

This 5-stage system - called the "GEM Stages" after Dr. Muller's initials - was designed "to focus on testing the product, and developing it with the knowledge that it will be tested", as Muller himself notes. Program Control determined what needed to be done, managed the budget and requirements, and managed the relationship of program elements. Systems Engineering was responsible for the development of new devices and assemblies, Testing was responsible for ensuring that these new elements worked, Reliability and Quality checked the developed elements for compliance with requirements and standards, and Flight Operations was responsible for ensuring that these nodes will work during the flight.

Many were initially skeptical of Muller's method, but he eventually managed to convince the program members of the need to follow this algorithm. This system showed its effectiveness - the project was completed successfully, and, one might even say, triumphantly, ahead of the stated deadlines. This was only possible by breaking down a large-scale project into manageable, repeatable steps, allowing many individual companies and professionals to work at the same pace. This is how project management proved its effectiveness in the Space Race.

A Brief History of Project Management

Project management was not invented by NASA and Dr. Muller. The Egyptian pyramids and the Great Wall of China are products of project management from prehistoric times. Unfortunately, there is no documentary evidence of how the implementation and management of these projects took place, and the current project management is divorced from the knowledge of past centuries.

The most obvious way to implement a project is to break it down into phases or individual tasks. Like a recipe, you buy the ingredients, mix them properly, cook and serve them. The simplest tool project management is a checklist of actions that must be taken to achieve the goal. Simple and effective.

However, if you are a chef and you are preparing more than one dish, but several, for example, a salad (which consists of 3 stages) and a dessert (which only needs to be served), then you will need a tool that allows you to track the time spent on each of them. items and when they should be ready. And here one of the first modern project management tools comes to the rescue: the Gantt chart, presented on Figure 2.

Invented independently by K about In the role of Korol Adamecki and Henry L. Gantt at the beginning of the 20th century, the Gantt chart shows the project schedule based on due dates and due dates for tasks. Tasks, their durations and relationships are entered into it, and then the critical path is calculated - the longest chain of interconnected tasks that determine the duration of the project. The relationships between the start and end of different tasks are very important - you can't serve soup to your guests until you've cooked it, right?

So here it is standard project very similar to a cooking and serving dinner project, only it has many more tasks, relationships, deadlines and types of resources. For projects with tight deadlines, the Gantt chart helps to decide when it is better to start certain tasks in order to reduce the implementation time. And for projects with strong resource constraints, the Gantt chart provides an opportunity to build a scheme in the form of an event-driven process chain for resource planning.

Different projects need different levels of control. For example, if you are publishing a series of articles in , then tight deadlines are not that important. Much more important is a clear process in which it is possible to structure each article, to make an outline of each of them, to get feedback, make edits, finish the article, proofread and publish. Instead of managing time and resources, you manage the process.

Agile project management methods and related approaches such as Lean, Kanban, and others are better suited for such projects. There are also methods that allow you to manage both the workflow and time and resources - 6 Sigma and Scrum.

Popular project management systems

Throughout the history of project management, many different project management methods have been created for almost any need. Even if you are not going to send a man to the moon and do not have a similar amount of resources, you will still find the right tool for you. The main thing is to understand what is most important for your project - deadlines, resources, adherence to the process, or several factors at once - and then choose a project management method focused on achieving this indicator.

Before we start looking at the most popular methods, let's define some key terms.

Basic terms of project management

Agile A flexible iterative-incremental approach to project and product management, focused on the dynamic formation of requirements and ensuring their implementation as a result of constant interaction within self-organizing working groups consisting of specialists in various fields. There are many methods based on the ideas of Agile, the most popular of which are Scrum and Kanban.

Critical Path: A continuous sequence of activities and events from start to finish that takes the longest time to complete.

Event chain of processes (EPC diagram): a diagram showing the sequence of project work implementation based on the availability and workload of resources

Time reserve: The amount of time by which the start of work can be delayed without affecting the overall duration of the project. Thus, the slack for activities on the critical path will be zero.

milestone (checkpoint,milestone): A key event that marks, for example, the end of a stage. In the Gantt chart, it is denoted by a task with zero duration.

Project manager (project leader,projectmanager,PM ): Project team leader responsible for project management (planning, implementation and closing of the project).

Resources: Elements necessary for the implementation of the project. Resources are time, equipment, materials, employees, and so on.

Sprint (Sprint): Iteration (work cycle) in Scrum, lasting from a week to a month, during which a working version of the product or its element is created that is of value to the customer.

"Classic" or "traditional" project management: The most widely used project management method, based on the so-called "waterfall" (Waterfall) or cascade cycle, in which the task is transferred sequentially through stages, resembling a flow.

Classical project management

The most obvious way to make your project more manageable is to break it down into successive steps. It is on such linear structure based on traditional project management. In this sense, it resembles computer game- you can not go to the next level without completing the previous one. The workflow diagram is shown in Figure 3.

This approach is focused on projects in which there are strict restrictions on the sequence of tasks. For example, building a house - you cannot build walls without a foundation.

Usually, there are 5 stages of classical project management, but additional stages can be added if the project requires it.

5 stages of traditional management:

Stage 1. Initiation. The project manager and the team define the requirements for the project. At this stage, meetings and brainstorming sessions are often held, at which it is determined what the product of the project should be.

Stage 2. Planning. At this stage, the team decides how it will achieve the goal set in the previous stage. At this stage, the team refines and details the goals and results of the project, as well as the scope of work for it. Based on this information, the team generates calendar plan and budget, assess risks and identify stakeholders.

Stage 3. Development. This stage is not implemented for all projects - as a rule, it is part of the planning phase. In the development phase, characteristic of technology projects, the configuration of the future project and/or product and the technical means of achieving it are determined. For example, in IT projects, a programming language is chosen at this stage. ( In domestic practice, this phase is usually not distinguished, and the term "development" is not used - approx. trans.)

Stage 4. Implementation and testing. At this phase, the main work on the project actually takes place - writing code, erecting a building, and the like. Following the developed plans, the content of the project, defined earlier, begins to be created, control is carried out according to the selected metrics. In the second part of this phase, the product is tested, it is checked for compliance with the requirements of the Customer and interested parties. In terms of testing, product deficiencies are identified and corrected.

Stage 5. Monitoring and completion of the project. Depending on the project, this phase may consist of a simple transfer of project results to the Owner, or a long process of interacting with clients to improve the project and increase their satisfaction, and support the results of the project. The latter refers to projects in the field of customer service and software.

What is described above is the base on which various methods project management. Different projects need different implementation phases – some need three phases, others many more. Sometimes the so-called "iterative waterfall" is used, in which each stage is a kind of subproject, during which tasks are implemented in fixed iterations. But the essence remains the same - the project is divided into stages that are executed in a strictly defined sequence.

Due to the fact that classical project management is strictly tied to the execution time of tasks, as a rule, predetermined at the planning stage, calendar-network planning tools are excellent for implementing projects within the framework of this approach. The most common scheduling tool is the previously mentioned Gantt chart. There are many tools to build it, from simple spreadsheets like Excel and Smartsheet to professional software packages like Microsoft Project and Primavera.

Strengths classical project management

Today, it is often said that the classic waterfall approach is outdated, but he does not even think about losing ground. Big plus This approach is that it requires the Customer and the company's management to determine what they want to receive already at the first stage of the project. Early inclusion brings a certain stability to the work of the project, and planning allows you to streamline the implementation of the project. In addition, this approach involves monitoring indicators and testing, which is absolutely necessary for real projects of various sizes.

Potentially, the classical approach avoids stress due to the presence of spare time at each stage, laid down in case of any complications and the implementation of risks. In addition, with a properly conducted planning stage, the project manager always knows what resources he has. Even if this estimate is not always accurate.

Weaknesses of classical project management

The main weakness of classical project management is intolerance to change. The management of Toyota, famous for creating systems such as Lean and Kanban, is often criticized for taking a classic approach to developing software for their company, and precisely for the lack of flexibility.

The mainstay of the classical approach now is construction and engineering projects, in which the content of the project remains virtually unchanged throughout the entire project. But if resources and time are not the key constraints in your project, and the content of the project is subject to change, you may need to look at other project management systems.

Agile

As mentioned earlier, not all projects can be structured in such a way as to be implemented according to the classical project approach. Returning to our chef example, cooking one dish fits perfectly with the waterfall approach, but preparing and serving a four-course dinner on time would be almost impossible if you have to wait for one dish to finish cooking each time to start preparing another.

And this is where Agile comes into play - a family of flexible iterative-incremental methods for managing projects and products. According to this approach, the project is not divided into successive phases, but into small subprojects, which are then “assembled” into a finished product. The scheme of work is shown on Figure 5.

Thus, initiation and top-level planning are carried out for the entire project, and subsequent stages: development, testing, and others are carried out for each mini-project separately. This allows you to transfer the results of these mini-projects, the so-called increments, faster, and starting a new sub-project (iteration), you can make changes to it without high costs and impact on the rest of the project.

Despite the fact that Agile came into vogue relatively recently, the idea of ​​iterative development is not new. (about the history of the appearanceAgile can be read - approx. per.). The family of agile methodologies got its current name in 2001 with the publication of the Agile Manifesto (Agile Manifesto), which consolidated the core values ​​and principles of agile software development, which are based on teamwork and adaptation, even “love” for change.

Agile itself is not a project management method. It is rather a set of ideas and principles of how projects should be implemented. Based on these principles and best practices individual agile methods have been developed or, as they are sometimes called, frameworks (frameworks): Scrum, Kanban, Crystal, and many others. These methods may be quite different from each other, but they follow the same principles.

StrengthsAgile

The most important advantage of Agile is its flexibility and adaptability. It can adapt to almost any conditions and processes of the organization. This is what determines its current popularity and how many systems for various areas have been created based on it.

One of the principles of Agile is: “Responding to change is more important than following a plan.” It is the quick and relatively painless reaction to change that is the reason why many large companies strive to make their processes more flexible. In addition, Agile is great for open-ended projects like starting a service or a blog.

The realm of Agile is the development of new, innovative products. In projects to develop such products, there is a high degree of uncertainty, and information about the product is disclosed during the course of the project. Under such conditions, it becomes impossible to implement the project on the "waterfall" - there is no information for planning.

Weak sidesAgile

Unlike PRINCE2 and PMBOK, Agile is neither a methodology nor a standard. Agile is a set of principles and values. The weak side is that each team will have to independently compose its own management system, guided by the principles of Agile. This is a complex and lengthy process that will require changes throughout the organization, from procedures to core values. This is a thorny path and not all organizations can do it.

This path will require from the leader of change not only knowledge and perseverance, but also serious administrative resources, as well as costs. Fortunately, there are ready-made sets of practices that make it easy for an organization to transform Agile. These sets include the Scrum framework, the Kanban method, and many others - Crystal, LeSS, SAFe, Nexus.

Scrum

The agile framework, created in 1986, is considered the most structured of the Agile family. Created in 1986, it combines elements of the classical process and the ideas of an agile approach to project management. The result is a very balanced combination of flexibility and structure.

Following the precepts of Agile, Scrum breaks the project into parts that can be immediately used by the Customer to obtain value, called product backlogs. And despite the fact that “product backlog” is a fairly accurate translation and is used in professional literature, in Russian practice, simply “backlog” is most often used. Then these parts are prioritized by the Product Owner - the Customer's representative in the team. The most important "pieces" are the first to be selected for execution in the Sprint - the so-called iterations in Scrum, lasting from 2 to 4 weeks. At the end of the Sprint, the Customer is presented with a working product increment - the most important "pieces" that can already be used. For example, a site with part of the functionality or a program that is already working, albeit partially. After that, the project team proceeds to the next Sprint. The duration of the Sprint is fixed, but the team chooses it independently at the beginning of the project, based on the project and its own performance.

To make sure that the project meets the requirements of the Customer, which tend to change over time, before the start of each Sprint, the project scope that has not yet been completed is re-evaluated and changes are made to it. Everyone is involved in this process - the project team, the Scrum Master (Scrum Master, project team leader) and the Product Owner. And everyone is responsible for this process.

As already mentioned, the Product Owner is the representative of the Customer in the project, or personifies all the clients of the future project, if the Customer is not present. To do this, he must thoroughly know their needs and way of thinking, as well as understand the product and its manufacturing technology. The Scrum Master is designed to help project participants better understand and accept the values, principles, and norms of Scrum practice. He is the leader and mediator between the outside world and the team. His task is to ensure that no one interferes with the team on their own and comfortably work on the tasks. The team is responsible for ensuring that at the end of the sprint all the necessary tasks are completed and deliveries are completed.

The basic structure of Scrum processes revolves around 5 main meetings: Backlog Sequencing, Sprint Planning, Daily Meetings, Sprint Debriefing, and Sprint Retrospective.

To many, Scrum may seem difficult to implement - a new process, new roles, a lot of delegation, and a completely new organizational structure. But this is a flexible and at the same time structured approach to the implementation of projects, which, unlike blurry and general principles Agile, will not allow work to go the wrong way.

StrengthsScrum

Scrum was designed for projects that require "quick wins" combined with a tolerance for change. In addition, this framework is suitable for situations where not all team members have sufficient experience in the area in which the project is being implemented - constant communication between team members allows the lack of experience or qualifications of some employees due to information and help from colleagues.

The Netflix online TV channel is a great example of delivering results quickly. The resource site is updated every two weeks thanks to Scrum, which not only allows you to work with high speed, but also accumulates user experience and makes it possible to identify the most important thing for customers.

During each iteration, developers add and test new features of the site and remove those that were not used by customers. According to the Netflix team, the main advantage of Scrum in that it allows you to "make mistakes quickly". Instead of a long and costly major release, scrum deliveries are small in size. They are easy to track and, if something goes wrong, quickly fix it.

Weak sidesScrum

Scrum is very demanding on the project team. It should be small (5-9 people) and cross-functional - that is, team members should have more than one competency necessary for the implementation of the project. For example, a software developer must have knowledge of testing and business intelligence. This is done so that part of the team does not "idle" at different stages of the project, as well as so that employees can help and replace each other.

In addition, team members must be "team players", actively take responsibility and be able to organize themselves. Finding such a mature team is very difficult!

Scrum is not suitable for all teams and organizations also because the proposed process may not be suitable for the development of a particular product - for example, an industrial machine or building a building.

Lean

Agile tells us what to break into small, manageable packages of work, but it doesn't say anything about how to manage the development of this package. Scrum offers us its processes and procedures. Lean, in turn, adds a workflow scheme to the principles of Agile so that each of the iterations is performed with the same quality.

In Lean, just like in Scrum, work is broken down into small delivery packages that are implemented separately and independently. But in Lean, for the development of each delivery package, there is a workflow with steps similar to those created for the Apollo project. As in classical project management, these can be the stages of planning, development, production, testing and delivery - or any other stages necessary for the qualitative implementation of projects.

Lean stages and their flexibility allow you to be sure that each part of the project is implemented as required. Lean does not have clear stage boundaries, as Scrum does with Sprint limits. In addition, unlike classical project management, Lean allows you to perform several tasks in parallel at different stages, which increases flexibility and increases the speed of project execution.

Like Agile, Lean is more of a concept, a way of thinking than something set in stone. Using the ideas of Lean, you can independently create a system that meets your requirements in project management.

StrengthsLean

If you like Agile ideas, but the project requires very smooth quality and precise execution, Lean provides a set of tools to meet these requirements. Lean combines flexibility and structure like Scrum, but in a slightly different way.

Weak sidesLean

Not every part of the project requires the same detailed and meticulous study and attention. But Lean assumes exactly this approach to each task and stage. This is the main disadvantage of using Lean for large and heterogeneous projects.

Also, unlike Scrum, Lean does not offer a clear workflow for the implementation of “pieces” of the project, which contributes to the stretching of the project timeline. This problem can be solved with effective leadership and clear communications ̶ the main thing to remember is this.

Kanban

Lean looks a little abstract on its own, but when combined with Kanban, it becomes much easier to use it to build your own project management system. Created by Toyota engineer Taiichi Ono in 1953, Kanban is very similar to the industrial production. At the entrance to this process, a piece of metal enters, and the finished part is obtained at the exit. Also in Kanban, the product increment is passed forward from stage to stage, and at the end, a ready-to-delivery item is obtained.

In addition, the creator of Kanban was inspired by supermarkets, namely their principle - "keep on the shelves only what the customer needs." Therefore, Kanban allows you to leave an unfinished task at one of the stages if its priority has changed and there are other urgent tasks. An unedited blog post, hanging without a publication date, or a piece of code for a feature that may not be included in the product are all normal for Kanban work.

Kanban is much less strict than Scrum - it does not limit the time of sprints, there are no roles, except for the product owner. Kanban even allows a team member to multi-task, which Scrum does not allow. Also, the meetings on the status of the project are not regulated in any way - you can do it as you like, or you can not do it at all.

To work with Kanban, you need to define workflow steps. In Kanban, they are displayed as columns, and tasks represent special cards. The card moves through the stages, like a part in a factory moving from machine to machine, and at each stage the percentage of completion is higher. As a result, we get a product element ready for delivery to the customer. A board with columns and cards can be both real and electronic - even here Kanban does not impose any restrictions on users.

Your own Kanban system can be as flexible as you want, because in many ways Kanban is a visualization of the Agile idea. But Kanban has 4 pillars on which the whole system rests:

1. Cards: For each task, an individual card is created, in which all the necessary information about the task is entered. Thus, all the necessary information about the task is always at hand.
2. Limit on the number of tasks per stage: The number of cards at one stage is strictly regulated. Thanks to this, it becomes immediately clear when a “congestion” occurs in the workflow, which is promptly eliminated.
3. Continuous flow: Tasks from the backlog fall into the flow in order of priority. So the work never stops.
4. Continuous improvement (kaizen)kaizen)): The concept of continuous improvement emerged in Japan at the end of the 20th century. Its essence is the constant analysis of the production process and the search for ways to improve productivity.

StrengthsKanban

Like Scrum, Kanban is well suited for fairly tight-knit teams with good communication. But unlike Scrum, Kanban doesn't have hard deadlines, which is good for highly motivated and experienced teams.

When properly set up and managed, Kanban can bring great value to a project team. Accurate calculation of the load on the team, the correct placement of restrictions and a focus on continuous improvement - all this allows Kanban to seriously save resources and fit into deadlines and budget. And all this combined with flexibility.

Weak sidesKanban

You can often hear that Kanban, unlike Scrum, can work with almost any team. But it is not so. Kanban is best suited for teams whose members' skills overlap. In this way, they can help each other overcome difficulties in solving problems. Without this, Kanban will not be as effective as it could be. Also, as already mentioned, Kanban is better suited in cases where there are no hard deadlines. For tight deadlines, the classic approach or Scrum is better suited.

6 sigma (Six Sigma)

Motorola, along with Toyota, has also contributed to the development of global project management. Bill Smith, an engineer at this company, created the concept of 6 Sigma in 1986. It is a more structured version of Lean than Kanban that adds more planning to save resources, improve quality, and reduce scrap and problems.

The ultimate goal of the project is customer satisfaction with the quality of the product, which can be achieved with the help of continuous process improvement of all aspects of the project, based on a thorough analysis of indicators. In the 6 sigma concept, special attention is paid to eliminating emerging problems.

For this, a 5-step process known as DMEDI has been proposed:

• Definition (define): The first stage is very similar to the early stages of other project management systems. It determines the content of the project, collects information about the prerequisites of the project, sets goals.
• Dimension (measure): 6 Sigma is focused on the collection and analysis of quantitative data about the project. At this stage, it is determined which indicators will determine the success of the project and what data needs to be collected and analyzed.
• Study (Explore): During the research stage, the project manager decides how the team can achieve its goals and meet all requirements on time and within budget. At this stage, non-standard thinking of the project manager in solving the problems that have arisen is very important.
• Development (Develop): At this stage, the plans and decisions made at the previous stages are being implemented. It is important to understand that at this stage it is necessary detailed plan, which describes all the actions necessary to achieve the goals. The progress of the project is also measured at this stage.
• Control (Control): A key milestone in the 6 Sigma methodology. Its main goal is the long-term improvement of project implementation processes. This stage requires careful documentation of the lessons learned, analysis of the collected data and application of the acquired knowledge both in projects and throughout the company as a whole.

6 Sigma is very similar to Kanban, only with the established stages of the implementation of tasks - planning, goal setting and quality testing. Most likely, there will be significantly more team meetings with 6 Sigma than with Kanban, but the project implementation process is more structured and it is more difficult for the team to go astray. And like Kanban, 6 Sigma is relatively easy to adapt to the needs of a particular company or team. A strict requirement is only a thorough measurement and control of project indicators at the stages of implementation - without this, continuous long-term improvement of the project implementation processes is impossible.

Strengths of 6 Sigma

Six Sigma provides a clear blueprint for project implementation and continuous process improvement. By defining goals, then carefully analyzing and revising them, you get quantitative data for a deeper understanding of the project and making better decisions. While data collection, analysis and learning may take some time, it will improve and streamline project implementation processes and thus save resources in the future.

6 sigma is suitable for difficult projects with many new and complex operations. This approach allows you to implement project elements, learn from mistakes and improve quality in the future.

Weaknesses of 6 Sigma

The problem with 6 Sigma is that although the main declared goal is to reduce costs and increase efficiency, customer satisfaction often comes to the fore. Given some of the differences in goals at different stages of a project, teams often get confused about priorities, and avoiding this is not easy.

In addition, the main leitmotif of 6 Sigma is: "Everything can always be made even better." This can demotivate employees who do not feel satisfied with the work done. In addition, if the project is a one-off and the company does not plan to implement similar projects in the future, all the costs of analysis and learning may be in vain.

PRINCE2

NASA is not the only one state organization, which contributed to the development of project management. The British Government has long appreciated the effectiveness of project management, and in 1989 the British methodology PRINCE2 was created. The name comes from the acronym " PR objects IN C controlled E nvironments version 2 ”, which translates as “Projects in a controlled environment version 2”. Unlike flexible methods, PRINCE2 does not take an iterative design approach. When compared to other products, PRINCE2 can be compared to a hybrid of the classical approach to project management and a focus on quality from 6 sigma.

The PRINCE2 methodology, unlike, for example, the PMBOK body of knowledge, does not contain:

• Specialized aspects of project management, such as industry;
• Specific practices and project management tools such as Gantt chart, WBS, etc.

PRINCE2 concentrates on the project management aspects expressed in 7 principles, 7 processes and 7 project themes.

• 7 principles define the general rules for managing projects according to PRINCE2, define the basis of the methodology;
• 7 processes define the steps to move through the project cycle;
• The 7 topics are the aspects that are monitored to achieve the success of the project.

At the beginning of a project, PRINCE2 asks us to define 3 main aspects of the project:

• Business Aspect (Will this project bring benefits?)
• Consumer aspect (What product is needed, what will we do?)
• Resource aspect (Do we have enough to achieve the goal?)

PRINCE2 has a more clearly defined project team structure than most project management approaches. This is due to the fact that PRINCE2 is focused on large-scale government projects and large organizations.

According to PRINCE2, each team member has a distinct role in each of the 7 processes:

• Project start (Starting upa project): During this process, a project manager is appointed and General requirements to the characteristics of the product. The Project Manager, whose primary responsibility is attention to detail, reports to the Project Steering Committee, which is responsible for the overall direction of the project. It is the Steering Committee that keeps the project on track and is fully responsible for the success of the project.
• Project Initiationa project): During this process, the project manager prepares a "Project Initiation Document" that contains the project's phased plan. Stages can last a different amount of time, but, as in the classical approach, they follow strictly one after another.
• Project Management (Directing a project): This process allows the Steering Committee to take overall responsibility for the success of the project without getting bogged down in details that are within the purview of the project manager.
• Stage control (Controlling a stage): During the implementation of the project, even in ideal conditions, certain changes will be made. The Stage Control process implements one of the principles of PRINCE2 - the principle of management by exceptions. It is the responsibility of the project manager to monitor during the implementation of the stage deviations from the planned project parameters in terms of time, scope, budget, etc. If these deviations exceed the authority given to the project manager by the Steering Committee (in PRINCE2 terminology - tolerances), the project manager must inform the Steering Committee and propose way out of the situation.
• Product Creation Management (Managing Product delivery): The product creation management process is the interaction between the project manager and the team manager to create one of the project products. The responsibilities of the project manager in this process include delegating the authority to create the product to the team manager and accepting the created product.
• Stage boundary management (Managing a stage boundary): During this process, the project manager provides the Steering Committee with all the necessary information to evaluate the results of the passed stage and decide on the transition to the next stage.
• Completion of the project (Closinga project): One of the differences in PRINCE2 is that the project completion process is not separated into a separate stage or stage, as in the classical approach, but is carried out as part of the final stage of product creation. The purpose of the process is to confirm that the project product has been accepted, or that the project can no longer deliver anything useful.

PRINCE2 can be adapted to projects of any size and any subject area. The methodology offers specific recommendations for changing the project life cycle, role model and set binding documents according to the needs of the project.

Strengths of PRINCE2

• Adaptability to the characteristics of the organization;
• The presence of a clear description of roles and distribution of responsibilities;
• Emphasis on project products;
• Certain levels of management;
• Focus on economic feasibility;
• Subsequence design work;
• Emphasis on capturing experience and continuous improvement.

Weaknesses of PRINCE2

• Lack of industry practices;
• Lack of specific tools for working in the project.

The best project management system ... for you!

Project management is a science, but the science is not the most exact. There are no firm foundations in this area. universal solutions. If you manage to find a method that suits your project perfectly, consider yourself very lucky, because most of the less fortunate managers have to put in the effort to create and customize their own project management systems. These systems can be made up of elements of existing systems, or even created entirely from scratch, as in the case of the Apollo mission. The main thing is to use something that gives you some structure and allows you to remember what is important for your project.

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Project management is an integral element of the modern management system in Russia. Many domestic and foreign companies use project management to improve the quality of products and services, reduce costs, increase profits. What is project management and what are its main advantages?

What is a project?

The concept of "project" can be interpreted in completely different ways. The first option involves the definition of the project as a set of documentation, according to which the construction of a building or structure is possible. This article will discuss the second meaning of the word "project".

If all three conditions are met, then the set of activities can be called a project.

Programs and project portfolios

Projects are often grouped into programs and portfolios. At the same time, programs are a set of projects that are united by a common goal. For example, a program to improve the quality of education for the population may include projects to increase teachers' salaries by 20%, the construction of 15 new schools, and the release of 26 new textbooks in basic subjects.

A project portfolio brings together projects financed from a single source, regardless of their objectives. For example, Company N's portfolio of projects may include charity projects, the construction of a new corporate office, the celebration of the director's anniversary, and an increase in annual turnover by 10%.

Projects in portfolios and programs should also have the three main features described above.

Basic principles of project management

In view of the dynamically developing market for technologies designed to facilitate the management process, it is difficult to name specific methods that fully describe project management.

It includes many approaches and tools and is based on the following basic principles:

Methods of stimulating project participants

The stimulation of project participants is usually given special attention when project management is selected to perform specific tasks. Project management usually includes tangible and intangible motivational mechanisms.

Financial incentives include bonuses, fines, additional payments for early completion of intermediate tasks.

Non-material methods of motivation include certificates and disciplinary gifts in the form of time off, as well as the deployment of competition among project participants as part of a competitive competition.

Main stages of project management

Project management takes place in stages and phases of the complexity of management. The relationship of stages and phases is given in the table below.

	Cost Management	Deadline management	Content Management	Management of risks
Initiation	Preliminary assessment of the amount of funding	Preliminary estimate of the project timeline	Definition of the main tasks	Preliminary analysis of possible negative factors
Planning	Budget calculation and search for funding sources	Project Schedule Calculation	Calculation of project targets	Risk Adjustment Calculation
Implementation	Phased project financing	Monitoring the implementation of the calendar plan	Monitoring the achievement of intermediate indicators	Monitoring changes in key factors
closure	Profit/loss estimation	Lag / Lead Estimation	Evaluation of the fulfillment / non-fulfillment of project tasks	Analysis of the mistakes made

Thus, the areas of project management include financial, personnel, structural areas of the organization.

Applications of project management

The project management structure includes the division of all the work of the organization into projects that are limited in terms of time and targets. At the same time, a team of each project and a team of project managers are formed, who report to the manager on the progress of their project.

In this regard, project management is used, as a rule, in organizations of various industries and sizes, with a wide range of simultaneously executed orders. However, in small businesses, he also uses project management to solve specific problems of modernizing production or, for example, introducing a new product.

Project management in the construction industry

AT construction industry the application of project management methodology is especially important. In companies that perform the functions of a customer or contractor, project management uses a natural division of work into projects (according to the product principle, that is, the construction of each building is a separate project), and the top management structure practically does not require serious reorganization.

Control design organization is also often carried out on a project-by-project basis, successfully using established design teams as the project team.

Project management in state structures

Project management in government bodies is a fairly new trend of our time. The program-target method of management, which has been developing since the Soviet period, has now taken the form of project management throughout the country. Now, to solve strategically important problems, programs are used that include individual projects with targets and deadlines for implementation. However, the very methodology for managing such programs is still far from ideal and requires modernization and updating.

Experience in implementing project management in the Belgorod region

Project-based public administration is well established throughout the world. In Russia, there is experience in applying this technology in the Belgorod region.

This large-scale experiment affected almost all aspects of the civil service in the Belgorod region. Among the main elements are training in project management, organizational and methodological support, on-site inspections, motivation, assessment of employees' competencies, expert commissions for reviewing projects.

The project management of the Belgorod region now includes collegial bodies of project management:

• Interdepartmental commission that manages project activities.
• Industry expert commissions that decide on the opening/closing of projects.
• Regional project office that controls compliance with the project management methodology.

The principle of "one window"

As part of the transition to project management, in 2010 the Belgorod Region switched to coordinating investment projects through the “one window” system, which is now well known in Moscow. The role of this window is just performed by one of the newly introduced services - the regional project office. Now, exactly one month after applying to the project office, the business entity receives a document on approval.

Automated information system "Project management"

Information and technical support project management in the Belgorod region is carried out through the automated information system (AIS) "Project Management". It is a web-based application that does not require installation of additional software and performs the following functions for projects, portfolios and programs:

• Maintaining a registry (database).
• Calendar planning.
• Budgeting.
• Monitoring implementation at the regional and municipal levels.
• Distribution of powers and responsibilities of the team.
• Making changes to content.
• Notification system about upcoming and upcoming events for projects.
• Document flow.
• Automated analytical reporting.
• Integration with the electronic Government of the Belgorod region.

Advantages and disadvantages of project management

The described experience of implementing project management in the Belgorod region turned out to be successful. The effect of these changes was expressed primarily in an increase in the growth rate of the gross regional product by 0.1% (more than 3 billion rubles), a decrease in the time spent on project approval (by 2 months for each project) and an increase in the rate of development of investments in the region by 23 %. However, the most important result is the formation of project thinking among employees who actively analyze and try to solve the problem, sometimes even with non-standard, innovative methods.

Motivation and restructuring of the management structure made it possible to obtain positive effect not only for the civil service, but also for business, creating a favorable investment climate and removing barriers to entrepreneurship.

The population of the region now takes an active part in the selection and control of the implementation of important strategic projects. For people, project management is an opportunity to use the services high quality and high mobility.

However, despite all the advantages of the project management structure, there are also disadvantages of this approach.

First of all, the transition period. It takes a certain time for the project team to work together and perform its functions as a well-coordinated mechanism.

Secondly, when implementing project management in an enterprise, the search for a good project manager can be delayed. The personal and professional qualities of a project manager are highly high requirements: comprehensive qualification, full immersion in the project, project management experience of the required specifics.

The third disadvantage of project management can be considered the need to split the company's resources between projects. In "poor" firms, this may not be feasible at all. Project managers will have to “fight” for funding and personnel, which is unacceptable in the context of total control of all stages of the project life cycle.

One of the most important disadvantages of the project management path in an organization is the employment of the project team members and the project manager after the completion of the project. Loading the team, as you know, is the most important rule successful business, and in the case of project work, groups of specialists “hanging in the air” regularly appear, who at once lose their constant workload.

Summarizing the above, we can conclude that project management is a modern business space, and studying its basics is simply necessary for competent acceptance management decisions both at the state level and within the framework of a single business.

Essence and features of the project approach to innovation management

Mechanism for selection of innovative projects

Project planning system

Organization of implementation of innovative projects

Management of the implementation of innovative projects

Question 1. Essence and features of the project approach to innovation management

The management of innovative activities of enterprises at the tactical level is in most cases implemented on the basis of a project management system. Innovative project management ensures the specification of the selected innovative strategies and their direct implementation in the production and economic activities of the enterprise. At its core project management represents purposeful systemic process of developing and implementing management decisions covering all stages of a specific development and aimed at its successful implementation within the established time, budget and resource constraints.

The key elements of the project management system for the innovative activity of an enterprise are individual innovative projects. Innovation project represents a non-repeating set of activities (scientific, technological, industrial, organizational, financial and commercial) performed in the established sequence, mutually related to each other in terms of resources, deadlines and performers, and aimed at achieving a single ultimate goal - the creation of a specific innovation.

As an object of management, any innovative project has the following characteristics: signs:

Specific targeting. This feature means that any innovative project is organized and carried out not to test abstract scientific ideas, but is focused on creating a predetermined product intended for transfer to a specific customer, introduction to specific market segments or for implementation in a specific area of ​​the production process within the enterprise itself.

Limited implementation time. In accordance with this sign, any project is an urgent event that has a strictly established time frame. If the deadlines for its implementation are exceeded, the project loses its attractiveness for investors and may come into conflict with both the dynamics of market requirements and the dynamics of the developer's own strategic directions of development.

Limited amount of attracted labor and material resources. This feature means that any changes in the progress of the project can only be made within the allocated resource limits. In cases where the project does not fit into such limits, it is either closed or a revision of the original goals of its implementation is carried out. The resource limitation of projects is the initial prerequisite for the formation and implementation of their diversified portfolios, as well as for reserving resources as a means of compensating for the risks of innovation activity.

Having a well-defined individual budget. In accordance with this feature, any innovative project is planned and implemented as a separate business with its own structure of income and expenses, drawn up in the form of an appropriate budget. The presence of separate project budgets provides an opportunity for business planning of projects and creates conditions for current control and coordination of their cost parameters.

Uniqueness and novelty for the enterprise-developer. This feature means that any project is not an element of routine activities. divisions of the enterprise, contains a certain novelty and is carried out once. As a result, the implementation of each of the projects requires the acquisition of specific knowledge and skills by personnel, the involvement of new specialists and the establishment of new relationships with contractor organizations.

Organizational isolation. In accordance with this feature, any project is such an event, the implementation of which requires the formation of a specialized team of specialists, whose activities are focused only on the implementation of this development and which in some cases can be assigned the status of a separate structural unit of the enterprise.

Simultaneous isolation and interconnectedness with other projects of the enterprise. The isolation of projects is a consequence of their internal novelty and resource limitations. An expression of the isolation of projects from each other is the specialization of project teams, as well as the possible competition of projects for the resources provided. The isolation of projects provides the possibility of their diversification, and also creates conditions for a clear distribution and efficient use of enterprise resources. At the same time, implemented by the enterprise innovative projects should be logically interconnected, due to which synergistic effects and continuity of the intellectual potential of project team members are ensured.

Any project has its own life cycle, consisting of four basic stages: the stage of formulation and selection of the project, the stage of its development, the stage of implementation and the stage of completion (see Figure 4.1.1).

At the first stage of the life cycle, the specification of the project idea is carried out, the structure of its goals is determined, a preliminary assessment of the amount of resources required for the project implementation and the expected effect from its implementation is carried out. Based on the results of the assessment, a feasibility study or a business plan for the project is developed, on the basis of which the project passes the competitive selection procedure, under which it,

Rice. 4.1.1. The structure of the life cycle of an innovative project

together with alternative project options, they are subjected to an examination according to a set of various evaluation criteria. If the selection result is positive, a decision is made to include the project in the appropriate portfolio and the search for possible investors begins (if the project is initially implemented on the order of a specific client).

At the second stage of the life cycle, the formation of a set of tasks and activities interconnected in time, resources and performers to achieve the project goal is carried out. At this stage, a detailed plan for the implementation of the project is developed, the optimal structural form of its implementation is selected, members of the project team and external contractors are selected, and the necessary contract documentation is drawn up.

At the project implementation stage, its main product is directly created, the implementation of established schedules and allocated resource limits is monitored, deviations are corrected and the development progress is promptly regulated.

At the project completion stage, the created product is handed over to the customer (or brought to target markets), contracts are closed and the resources of the project are redistributed, during which the released equipment and personnel are transferred to other projects of the enterprise.

Project management covers all stages of its life cycle and is implemented by the joint efforts of project managers and managers at the corporate level. The specific distribution of functions between these two levels of management in each organization has an individual situational character and is determined by the complex influence of the following main factors:

type of the organizational structure of management operating at the enterprise;

the level of novelty of the project and the uncertainty of its main parameters;

the degree of priority of the project as a portfolio element for the respective SBA.

In general, the distribution of management functions between the project and corporate levels of management is implemented according to the following scheme. At the corporate level, projects are selected, deadlines are set for the completion of their development and implementation, plans for the allocation of resources between the stages of project implementation are approved, and the implementation of each of the integrated stages is monitored. At the project management level, project plans are prepared for their subsequent transfer to the corporate level, current control of the project implementation, coordination of the actions of the project team members and compensation for deviations from the established plans are carried out.

In general, the project approach to managing the innovative activity of an enterprise has the following main Benefits:

the target nature of innovative developments, ensured by simultaneously linking each of the ongoing projects with innovation strategy enterprises in a particular SZH and with all other projects of the corresponding portfolio;

clear coordination of investment flows aimed at ensuring the innovative activity of the enterprise through the development and control of the implementation of individual budgets for each of the projects;

ensuring the possibility of operational control and regulation of the implementation of each of the projects through the development of their individual detailed time and resource plans;

creating conditions for the most efficient use of enterprise resources through the use of competitive schemes for selecting projects and delegating significant powers and responsibilities to project managers;

providing conditions for the rapid curtailment of projects, the implementation of which significantly deviates from the time and budget plans drawn up.

Main restrictions The application of the project approach is the presence of a sufficient number of initiative managers of the middle and lower levels of the hierarchy (managers-generalists), a high level of qualification and mobility of the personnel of the enterprise, as well as the presence of a developed organizational culture that provides support for constant changes in the activities and structure of the enterprise.

L.B. Pereverzev, head education design labs
at the Institute of New Education Technologies

Project approach to educational problems

Both means and object

The project approach, or project method, proposed at the dawn of the twentieth century, promises a lot to education. However, he also requires a lot from teachers - both in mastering his working methods and in organizational integration into the existing system of classroom lessons. Because of this, his path to recognition was long and difficult, and even today it is by no means strewn with roses.

From the point of view of the school, the project approach is significant in two ways. First of all, he is teaching aid which gives hope to more successfully cope with a number of "eternal" educational problems; but the very inclusion of this tool in the educational process gives students a kind of vital practical skill that is useful to every graduate, regardless of their chosen profession, specialization and future career. We emphasize that teachers who intend to expand their pedagogical tools cannot do without such a skill.

But in order to master the design approach as a means and instrument of study, you must first meet it face to face as a subject of study and learn to design at least a little bit yourself. It happens that another teacher impatiently asks: quickly explain how to apply the project approach, give his methodology, and I will immediately get down to business. But this is very much like someone who wants to quickly master the very profession of a teacher without bothering to acquire elementary skills in reading and writing. The project approach has its own "alphabet" and "grammar" that deserve the most diligent study, but about them some other time. For now, let's look at just a few basic concepts and one example from real school experience.

Pushed into the future

A project (from the Latin projectus = pushed forward) is a realistic idea of ​​a desired future. From capricious desire, empty dreams, unrealizable dreams and groundless fantasies (today they are ironically called "projects" or "projecting"), the design concept differs in that it contains a rational justification and a specific method (technology) of its practical feasibility. In other words, the design concept tells us what and how to do to implement it, or bring it to life. That is, to obtain, manufacture, create, build, or design what we need and what we do not yet have, but we can have if we apply the proper mental, physical and / or political efforts to it.

Designing is the process of developing such an idea and fixing it in some externally expressed symbolic form - alphanumeric text, graphic image, three-dimensional layout, operating model, etc.

There are three main stages, or phases, in the design process. At the first stage, an initially fruitful hypothetical idea is put forward, a meaningful core, an embryo of meaning, capable of further growth and development.. On the middle of the initially vague and undifferentiated idea, a gradually becoming more complex design image emerges, a certain morphology arises - a detailed picture, a multifaceted panorama, clearly imagined scenes of the desired future. The subject of such an anticipatory figurative representation can be anything - some hitherto unknown product, complex of products or order of things; new network of connections, organizational structure and system of relations; a new state of affairs or a naturally controlled course of events. The final phase of the design is the preparation of design and technological documentation. It describes in detail all those operations and procedures that need to be performed with certain tools on certain materials in order to realize the design concept, translate it into reality and thereby translate the image of what we want from the possible future into the actual present.

As long as the project is not implemented, it is permissible to review and recheck it many times in order to detect, correct and minimize the oversights, miscalculations and errors that inevitably creep into any human undertakings. After the project is implemented, correcting such errors, sometimes extremely dangerous ones, may turn out to be too difficult and time-consuming, long, expensive, or even completely unfeasible. The foregoing fully applies to the project approach to the problems of education, where the consequences of wrong decisions sometimes turn out to be truly catastrophic.

Focus on new

Another fundamental property of projectivity: the target orientation to something original, new, unprecedented, hitherto not been, previously unknown. In the play by A.N. Ostrovsky "There is enough simplicity in every wise man" General Krutitsky, who wrote "a very serious project, or a note, whatever you want to call it," asks Glumov to give it a literary finish.

The central thought of the "project" (in the nineteenth century, Russians still pronounced "project" in the French manner without any irony) is that "we should not increase the content<мелким>officials and generally improve their position, which, on the contrary, needs a significant increase in the salaries of the chairmen ... so that these outward brilliance maintain the greatness of power ... the subordinate must be timid and constantly trembling. "Glumov leaves these wonderful phrases untouched, but puts in the title not a “project”, but a “treatise.” And to Krutitsky's question why “Treatise, why not a project?” he answers: “Project, Your Excellency, when something new is proposed; Your Excellency, on the contrary, rejects everything new... and quite rightly, Your Excellency... Krutitsky: Yes, well, perhaps. "A Treatise on the Harm of Reforms in General". "In general" is not superfluous, is it? Glumov: This the main idea Your Excellency, that all reforms are generally harmful. " Sadly, similar views remain valid in our time; their stability is one of the reasons for the slow spread of project thinking in education and other areas of public life.

Instructionism and constructionism

The project approach to educational problems, proclaimed at the dawn of the twentieth century, requires a revision of one of the long-standing principles of education, called instructionism. As you can see from the name, it is to continuously give the student some kind of instructions, notations, prescriptions, instructions and instructions. Take this and that, measure from this to this, do this and that, put it there and there; do not deviate a single step from what you are commanded, do everything exactly to the last detail, do not add anything from yourself, do not ask unnecessary questions and do not be clever at all. Seems like a caricature? Okay, here's a softer scene. The teacher tells the class: "Open the notebooks, listen carefully to what I (reading from the book or knowing by heart for a long time) will tell you; write down and remember, and then I will ask you, and who will answer me as close as possible to the text, and even better - word for word without any mistakes - he will receive the highest score.

Here I am also a little rude, but tell me, honestly, have you ever encountered a similar situation at school? I'm sure you've recognized the typical features of a familiar practice here. Such, in its extreme form, is the instructional approach. Let's not rush and completely reject it and morally destroy it. There are times when it is indispensable, although today it is far from universal and omnipotent.

The project approach is diametrically opposed to instructionalism. The teacher does not teach ready-made and fully chewed knowledge, which children can only swallow and assimilate. The teacher does not explain or demonstrate to the students the correct way of acting, which they could master by direct imitation. He does not blame children for their mistakes. The teacher does not show those highest achievements, the best results, reference samples or inspiring examples that students could admire and would strive to approach or even surpass them (this perspective is also very important and we also do not deny it, but now we are talking about something else ). In the case we are considering, the teacher offers the class a task that is too complex to be completed immediately and in one sitting according to some already known scheme. If the student answers: "I don't know how to cope with this task," the teacher does not urge him: "Well, remember, remember ...". The teacher calls: "think, imagine, think about how and by what means it could be done."

In other words, the student needs to acquire the necessary knowledge and the correct answers to the questions posed on his own - this is what should be learned in the first place. BUT The best way such a teaching is to engage in the development and implementation of a particular educational project aimed at finding a solution to the problem contained in the task. Since the ways, methods and means leading to the goal are not communicated to children in advance; each student must find, discover or invent them himself, and then logically construct or construct. Hence the design approach has another name: constructionism.

What is the role and responsibility of the teacher in such a situation? The volume of his consultations and dialogues with the student sharply increases. The authority of the teacher is now based on the ability to stimulate the mental activity of the student, in which he himself is personally interested for the sake of success in the project activity he has undertaken.

thought experiment

During the work on the project, the teacher suggests only the general direction and the main landmarks of the search route. He says to the child: well, now you do not yet know the required answer. But let's discuss how to get there. Let's find the answer with a thought experiment. Let's put forward a hypothesis, that is, a conjectural idea, a thought that flashed through our heads, some initial guess and accept it as an initial assumption. Let's say that a large and complex task can be subdivided into several simpler parts; take some one and do with it, for example, like this, and on the other, and see what happens ... If it immediately becomes clear that nothing will come of this, we will immediately discard this hypothesis, we will offer instead some different and subject it to the same "practical test in the mind." Is the principle clear? Now try to imagine and imagine as vividly as possible what you would come to the second, third or n-th time by doing the task in the way described above. In other words, we will begin to design, that is, further develop, logically test, critically evaluate, step by step refine in more detail, and sometimes boldly change our original idea. Let's try to complete the task in our imagination, mentally moving towards the goal along the path you suggested. And in order not to lose sight of anything significant, we will somehow mark the path of our thought, place reference milestones on it by means of notes, drawings, things (sticks, cubes, plasticine figures); our own postures, gestures, movements, or some other outward sign. Let's take the first step, then the second - what happened? Ah, not at all what you expected? Is there no further way? Ahead of some continuous contradictions? Thought stuck? It's okay, somewhere there was an error, that's all.

It is human nature to make mistakes both in deeds and in thoughts. There will always be a lot of mistakes, no one is immune from them, and there is nothing to immediately panic because of them. But you need to be able to detect them in time by constant verification - and better in thoughts and drawings, plans and diagrams, calculations and drawings, rather than in the course of their practical implementation. Indeed, in this case, it is possible to correct the most serious mistakes relatively easily and quickly even before the plans become deeds, and their consequences become an irreversible fact of life. This is what designing is for - imaginary (sometimes they say - virtual) creation, testing and verification of what we want to create and build in practice. An erroneous hypothesis, an incorrect assumption in our initial design, or a false step in its development - if detected early enough - is relatively easy to correct in the design. I emphasize again and again: mistakes are not terrible in the course of a thought experiment and design search. They become scary - and often catastrophic - from the moment when nothing can be changed in the project. And especially - when the project, concealing an undetected error, is carried out in practice and is brought to life. Don't Be Afraid of Mistakes Of paramount importance is the fact that the systematic detection of errors and their careful correction at the stage of project development must be specially learned.

Therefore, from the point of view of the design-constructionist approach and the ultimate goals of education, it is desirable for each student in the process of project search, and it is simply necessary to make, and then, of course, to find and correct mistakes in themselves! The expression "learn from mistakes" is most true just in the case of design. Let us return to the mistake made by our student and discovered by him in the course of a thought experiment. We do not give him a deuce for this, we do not blame him for inattention, and we do not express any displeasure at all. On the contrary, we praise him for the fact that he himself noticed his mistake in time. And we tell him: this mistake is made by many, this is a typical mistake, let's see what it usually occurs because of. What do you think, in what and when did you make a mistake - at what step of reasoning, calculations and planning? Perhaps you missed some intermediate link, did not think about some important circumstance? Look for it and find it, think about it now and correct it accordingly. If things are not moving forward now, then it is possible that the initial assumption was already erroneous.

But here, too, there is nothing to be afraid of: it is still not too late to abandon it and take something else as a starting point, that is, put aside the previous plan and put forward another hypothesis. Discuss it again with yourself and with your classmates, try together to imagine moving towards the project goal along a different path you have chosen and see what awaits us in this case? And so, having sorted out, in this way, several - sometimes quite a lot - various hypothetical ways and means, we can come to the conclusion that only the third, fifth, or even tenth of the options proposed by us and mentally tested allows us to hope for the success of our project.

And then - and only when we have sufficient confidence in the validity of our n-th guess, hypothesis, assumption and plan - we will gather all our strength and begin to complete the task finally and in practice (in the simplest case, we will rewrite the final solution found and announce that we have received it).

Learn continuously and non-stop

This is the design-constructionist approach in its most general terms. If you say that for a teacher it is immeasurably more complex and difficult than instructional, I agree with you, but I will add: on the other hand, it is incomparably more interesting, livelier and more fun with it. In addition, you will inevitably have to face more and more situations that are new to you, when no other approach simply will work. So it's better to start learning it right now - especially since there are much more complexities and difficulties in it than it seems at first glance. For example, it is not at all easy to induce and then teach children (they, however, are much easier than adults) to put forward various hypotheses and assumptions. It is not at all easy to teach them how to develop multivariate ideas in their imagination and by what external means to support the process of design, that is, problem-search, constructive-volitional and critical thinking. It is very difficult to instill in a student (and in ourselves) a readiness for the fact that in order to get an answer to a number of questions contained in a task, we need not only to look into the reference book, but first to specially study, discover, invent, and conduct a systematic study of something. , and then build a design model and present the results of your work in a form that would be understandable to other people.

Design thinking needs to be specially awakened, systematically developed and carefully cultivated. But all this is absolutely necessary for both adults and children. Today, even in order to simply survive, not to mention lead a more or less human-worthy existence, we must boldly go towards the new. That is, to be able to design our interaction with the constantly and unpredictably changing world. This means that we need to learn continuously and non-stop. Life demands from us that every new task that we give to our students is to some extent new for us as well. Addressed to us, it should be a task to improve the educational process, to develop our ability to solve new pedagogical problems and transfer the principles of solution found to other object areas and problem situations. The project approach largely satisfies such requirements. It is applicable to the study of any school discipline and is especially effective in lessons aimed at establishing intersubject relationships.

I will give as an example the lessons within the framework of the integrated course of language and mathematics, developed by the Institute of New Education Technologies and successfully tested at the turn of the nineties in primary school 57th school of Moscow. Classes were then under the direction of Elena Igorevna Bulin-Sokolova, now the director of the named Institute; the episodes I have chosen are fully filmed and available for anyone who wants to study them in the smallest detail. I will simply state now what everyone could be convinced of by observing these events on the screen. Do not learn the rule, but deduce it At the beginning of the lesson, third-graders are given the task: to determine how numerals were written in various alphabets and writing systems; in this case, Sumerian, ancient Chinese and Old Slavonic. Some of you will say: but such a task is reasonable only when the children already know to some extent - or begin to learn - these languages. And at least they are familiar with their alphabets. Are they going to teach all this in elementary grades? Not at all, just at the very beginning of the integrated course of language and mathematics - I emphasize, LANGUAGE, and not "native language" - the students learned: on Earth there are different languages, different alphabets and different ways of writing concepts, words and statements. At the same time, children from the very beginning firmly learned another very important position. It says: although there are many seemingly completely dissimilar languages ​​in the world, they all have something in common, some common basis, or deep structure, the properties of which are somehow manifested in any individual national language. In addition, the students were shown the main types of signs used in various systems writing: hieroglyphs, cuneiform and letter alphabet. Finally, they were given several examples, and sometimes only hints, of how the writing of one or more numerals looks like in each of the named languages. The task is to bring out general rule, which allows you to correctly write and read (understand) any number in the alphabet of a given language.

Self-organization of working groups

Having received the task, the class is divided - sometimes on the advice of the teacher, sometimes spontaneously - into several working groups of 3 to 5 people, although there are almost always individualists who prefer to sit on the sidelines and remain alone. In order for the teacher to correctly determine his line of interaction with each of these individualists, it is important to understand why he or she does not want to be in the group. Someone does this out of genuine (or feigned) self-confidence: "I am stronger than others, I can handle it without outside help." The other, on the contrary, fears that he will be the weakest in the group, he will have nothing to say and everyone will immediately see it. The third one, who is very smart, has difficulties with communication, and he does not want to once again make a special effort on himself and experience an unpleasant feeling, being misunderstood, etc. Each of these disciples must be dealt with accordingly in order to help them overcome their inner obstacles, suspicions and fears. It’s better not to touch the proud: sooner or later they themselves will join this or that group - either because they can’t cope with the task alone, or out of interest in the discussion, or simply because it’s more fun together. In groups, spontaneous and spontaneous formation, distribution and learning of roles and their corresponding functions occurs very quickly and without any prompting from the teacher.

Roles and Functions

Everything happens the way it is described in scientific monographs on "organized creative technology", or "systematic organization of creative teams". Some of the guys take on the role of a "problematizer" or "problem maker", someone - a researcher-analyst, someone - a "generator of ideas" and a creator of hypotheses, someone - their criticism, someone - a generalist, synthesizing various views, and so on. Of course, these roles are not rigidly fixed - each member of the group can, if he wants, try himself in each of them.

One group is arguing about what rule various combinations of vertical and horizontal strokes obey, expressing numbers in Sumerian cuneiform ... The other analyzes the hypothesis that in Old Slavonic letters numerals were written in letters of the alphabet, over which a special sign was placed - titlo. Children do not yet know such a name, and someone calls the title "unfinished sharp". If they call it that when telling the class about the results of their research, the teacher will not consider it a mistake. After all, it’s very good that in this micro-collective they don’t resort to expressions like: “well, how is she ..., in general, she’s like that ... I don’t know how to say ... but you see for yourself ..., there there ..., no, not there, but here - this squiggle into which I poke my finger.

The students are already constructing - albeit for the time being from randomly selected elements - quite operational, consistent in meaning, terms that they understand in the same way. Later they will be told that in the Old Church Slavonic language (and in science) there is a generally accepted name for that icon, the meaning of which they have already compiled correct concept.

Debugging final decision

After a period of very heated discussions of various hypotheses and solutions, the groups eventually come to some answer to the question contained in the task, and proceed to the final phase of their work. Let me remind you that the task is considered completed only when the results of the work done on it are clearly and consistently set out in a written report.

Here is the reporting process. The student responsible for this final stage wrote the phrase and reads it aloud to the closest colleagues; detects in it and immediately smoothes out some roughness; reads further, stops again, thinks, says: "No, it's impossible." Rewriting something, inserting qualifying words, etc. Computer programmers call this "debugging" and it's about more than just catching bugs. Every now and then there is a noticeable improvement, an improvement on the original "product", so that "debugging" is more properly regarded as the final part of the development of a given project.

The first of the groups has finished the task, its representative goes to the board to make a report. Perhaps, when it was drafted and discussed in the group, it seemed quite acceptable. But when read in public, after a few seconds it becomes obvious: the text of the report turns out to be gray, confusing and very boring. The speaker understands this even earlier than her listeners. Unlike adults, who in such cases try to finish their written nonsense anyway, the girl immediately, without waiting for a negative reaction from the audience, interrupts the reading herself and returns to her own to remake and finalize the text.

Discussion on the report

The report of the second group sounds slick, but provokes heated discussion. Opponents one by one run forward and argue both with the speaker and with each other, arguing in words and with the help of chalk on the board. Children conduct a real logical research in order to find out the truth, which is still unknown to them. There are all elements of scientific research, critical analysis, oral and written communication, public debate. From all participants, a constant tension of attention, perception, memory and mind is required; the ability to generate hypotheses and perform thought experiments to test them, the ability to formulate final conclusions and communicate them to others. But no less (if not more) important is also the ability and ability to substantiate and defend one's position, never in any way violating those very strict rules of the game observance of which is a matter of honor and personal dignity of each member of this intellectual community. All these abilities and skills are formed, exercised and developed as children acquire more and more diverse and in-depth experience of encountering problems that can only be solved by research and design and construction. The teacher, as already mentioned, helps the students to embark on this path, and then they go along it - and learn to go more and more confidently - already on their own.

The feat of the discoverers

Let what students discover or create as they develop their projects is only a simplified repetition of what was created by "big science" - the point is that children discover facts that are subjectively new to them and build new concepts for them, and do not receive them ready-made from the teacher or from textbooks. After all, what they come to as a result of observation, search, reflection and debate, no one told them in advance, did not show, did not explain. They did not suspect before about the existence of such things, did not notice them around them, and if they did, they never thought about them specifically. Until now, nothing had attracted the attention of these schoolchildren to the form of cuneiform signs, did not encourage them to compare them with each other and look for some recurring features, patterns, structure and meaning in ancient squiggles. Doing this with genuine passion, they each time re-perform their micro-feat of discoverers.

The pedagogical value of such an experience cannot be overestimated. At the same time, as already mentioned, the role of the teacher is radically changing. From an omniscient, all-powerful, and indisputable dictator-mentor, he gradually turns into a more competent colleague, into a senior partner in research and development of the project, into a qualified expert consultant who comes to the aid of students and gives his advice and recommendations only when asked about it. . What is his authority now based on? On the ability to be the initiator of interesting undertakings. Ahead here is, first of all, the one who provokes independent activity of students; who challenges their quick wits, ingenuity and creative imagination. There are no words - to act in such a role is much more difficult than to "teach" children pre-packaged portions of ready-made knowledge from a textbook, a problem book and the latest collection of methodological instructions. And, of course, you need to be specially prepared for it.

Sources of motivation

Where and what is the driving force behind the project approach, which embraces the development of hypotheses, their analysis, criticism and thought, as well as external model experiments to verify them, and then the synthesis of final conclusions? Where does all this come from in a child? After all, generating hypotheses is a very difficult and difficult thing. Just as difficult is their deep and justified criticism. It is even more difficult to synthesize the final results. Nobody is born with ready skill to do all this; until recently, it was generally believed that such abilities are formed only in those who have specially completed a long course of study in the relevant academic disciplines.

The project approach is remarkable in that, by its very nature, it necessarily contains the moment of the necessary training in all these types of mentally productive activity. And he is extremely motivating. Children very quickly come to the conclusion that in order to successfully develop a project that is interesting for them, they need to learn a lot and acquire a number of special, narrower knowledge, skills and abilities in certain subject areas. They begin to understand that the acquisition of such qualities is often associated with hard work, requires systematic, often tedious exercises, great diligence, perseverance and diligence. That sometimes you have to resort to cramming in order to firmly consolidate some skills that are absolutely necessary as a basis for higher, including creative mental functions for putting forward hypotheses and building general concepts.

Cramming and higher values

Illustrative analogies to what has just been said can be found in the traditions of some schools of architecture (where project activity was historically first recognized as different from performing) and navigation. In the first case, future architects go through a mandatory (certainly not too long) period of apprenticeship in the role of masons and masons. At some stage of training, they are given the task of hewing a stone block to give it the shape of a regular cube or parallelepiped, so that its sides are smooth and normal to each other. Until the student has mastered this operation, he is not allowed to further study the high art of architectural design. Similarly, in nautical schools, future captains of ocean liners, nuclear ice drifts, aircraft carriers and submarines are trained as sailors of sailing ships. They are forced to perform the most difficult, archaic and seemingly meaningless tasks in our nuclear-electronic-computer age: having risen before dawn on the boatswain's pipe, they scrub the deck, knit knots, climb the shrouds to the foremast, scatter along the yards, put all sorts of bom-brahmsely and more. All this is considered essential condition quality training of real ship commanders, admirals and naval commanders.

Many more examples can be given of how coaching, "mechanical cramming" and monotonous exercise in the same techniques turn out to be a necessary prerequisite for acquiring a number of basic knowledge, skills and abilities that open the way to individual creativity. All of these traditional ways of learning are fully valid today: they are quite legitimate, legitimate and effective - but, of course, only when they are built into a wider educational context. When both for the teacher and for the student they are consecrated highest values and the meaning of education; when they serve his ultimate goals, achieved in combination and interpenetration of the strictest discipline of routine operations and the free flight of creative imagination. What are these values ​​and goals?

I deliberately refrain now from proclaiming any ideological postulates and moral maxims. I will only say that an absolutely necessary (although, of course, far from the only) property of an educated person of our day is his ability to independently pose and look for solutions to new, non-standard, previously unprecedented problems. This applies to problems of cognition, problems of production, problems of culture, problems of social and personal relationships and interactions between people.

Learn all over again

Previously, it was possible to live life more or less tolerably, following well-tested rules, repeating actions that had already brought success earlier, relying on the experience and knowledge accumulated by previous generations. Then education to a large extent was reduced to the transfer, assimilation and reproduction, reproduction of this experience with minor amendments and additions, corresponding to the same small and gradual changes in the surrounding life. Slowly changing life posed difficult and difficult, but rather definite problems for people; it also gave time and chances for solving each of them according to accepted norms. It was only necessary to learn well in advance what these decisions and norms are and how to apply them in practice. Today's life does not give us such an opportunity. It brings us face to face every day with vague, ambiguous, ill-defined problems without precedent and ready-made solutions. The only way out is to re-learn how to solve such problems every time. The modern school is called upon, at a minimum, to form and develop the primary ability to find, identify, formulate and search for acceptable solutions to such problems as clearly as possible. Mission-conscious teachers can no longer passively wait for someone from above to say, "This is what and how you should teach your children today, and tomorrow we will send you some other guidelines." The school and teachers need to take an active position here and continuously learn on their own in order to be at least a little ahead of their students in learning new things.