- Theories of motivation, their characteristics
- Types, types and levels of motivation
Motivation is a complex psycho-physiological state, which is characterized by a set of dynamically hierarchized human motivations for a particular activity. The difficulty in considering this problem lies in the fact that any activity - be it work, knowledge, communication, etc. - is polymotivated. It is motivated not by a single motive, but by their combination. Some motives complement each other, some are in conflict. They sometimes reinforce each other, sometimes they distort the activity of a person, which, in the end, makes it difficult for him to determine why he acted this way and not otherwise. Moreover, many motives are not realized by a person. Therefore, it is pointless to build a motivational process in an organization, relying only on individual components of a complex motivational complex.
In order to construct a motivational complex more adequately, let us consider the point of view of B. V. Kharazishvili, who analyzed motivation from the point of view of its components. He reasoned as follows. A prerequisite for human behavior, the source of his activity is the need. Needing certain conditions, a person seeks to eliminate the deficit that has arisen. The emerging need causes motivational excitation (of the corresponding nerve centers) and induces the body to a certain type of activity. At the same time, all the necessary memory mechanisms are revived, data on the presence of external conditions are processed, and on the basis of this, a purposeful action is formed. In other words, an actualized need causes a certain neurophysiological state - motivation.
Thus, motivation is the need-conditioned excitation of certain nervous structures (functional systems) that cause directed activity of the organism.
The admission to the cerebral cortex of certain sensory excitations, their strengthening or weakening depends on the motivational state. The effectiveness of an external stimulus depends not only on its objective qualities, but also on the motivational state of the body (having quenched the passion, the body will not respond to the most attractive woman).
Hence, need-conditioned motivational states are characterized by the fact that the brain at the same time models the parameters of the objects that are necessary to satisfy the need, and the schemes of activity for mastering the required object. These schemes - programs of behavior - can be either innate, instinctive, or based on individual experience, or newly created from elements of experience.
The implementation of activities is monitored by comparing the achieved intermediate and final results with what was pre-programmed. Satisfying a need relieves motivational tension and, evoking a positive emotion, “affirms” this type of activity (including it. useful action). Dissatisfaction of the need causes a negative emotion, increased motivational tension and at the same time - search activity. Thus, motivation is an individualized mechanism for correlating external and internal factors, which determines the behavior of a given individual.
In the animal world, modes of behavior are determined by the reflex correlation of the external environment with actual, vital organic needs. Thus, hunger causes certain actions depending on the external situation. In human life, the external environment itself can actualize various needs. So, in a criminally dangerous situation, one person is guided only by the organic need for self-preservation, another is dominated by the need to fulfill civic duty, the third - to show prowess in a fight, to distinguish himself, etc. All forms and methods of a person's conscious behavior are determined by his relationship to various parties reality. The motivational states of a person differ significantly from the motivational state of animals in that they are regulated by a second signaling system - the word. From here we move on to the types of motivational states of a person.
Motivational states of a person include: attitudes, interests, desires, aspirations and drives.
An attitude is a stereotyped readiness to act in a certain way in an appropriate situation. This readiness for stereotypical behavior arises on the basis of past experience. Attitudes are the unconscious basis of behavioral acts in which neither the purpose of the action nor the need for which they are performed is realized. The following types of installations are distinguished:
1. Situational-motor (motor) installation (for example, the readiness of the cervical vertebrae to head movement).
2. Sensory-perceptual set (waiting for a call, highlighting a significant signal from the general sound background).
3. Socio-perceptual attitude - stereotypes of perception of socially significant objects (for example, the presence of tattoos is interpreted as a sign of a criminalized person).
4. Cognitive - cognitive - attitude (the prejudice of the investigator regarding the guilt of the suspect leads to the dominance of accusatory evidence in his mind, exculpatory evidence recedes into the background).
5. Mnemic installation - installation on memorization of significant material.
The motivational state of a person is a mental reflection of the conditions necessary for the life of a person as an organism, individual and personality. This reflection of the necessary conditions is carried out in the form of interests, desires, aspirations and drives.
Interest - a selective attitude to objects and phenomena as a result of understanding their meaning and emotional experience of significant situations . The interests of a person are determined by the system of his needs, but the connection between interests and needs is not straightforward, and sometimes it is not realized. In accordance with the needs, interests are divided by content (material and spiritual), by breadth (limited and versatile) and sustainability (short-term and sustainable). Direct and indirect interests also differ (for example, the interest shown by the seller to the buyer is an indirect interest, while his direct interest is the sale of goods). Interests can be positive or negative. They not only stimulate a person to activity, but they themselves are formed in it. Human interests are closely related to his desires.
A wish- a motivational state in which needs are correlated with a specific subject of their satisfaction. If the need cannot be satisfied in a given situation, but this situation can be created, then the direction of consciousness to create such a situation is called aspiration. Striving with a clear idea of the necessary means and methods of action is the intention. A kind of desire is passion - a persistent emotional desire for a specific object, the need for which dominates all other needs and gives an appropriate direction to all human activity.
The predominant aspirations of a person for certain types of activity are his inclinations, and the state of obsessive attraction to a certain group of objects is drives.
Motivational states mobilize consciousness to search for appropriate goals and make a specific decision. The adoption of a decision on a specific action is connected with the awareness of the motive of this action, with the conceptual modeling of its future result. A motive is an argument in favor of a chosen action, a conscious motivation to achieve a specific goal, a necessary element of a conscious, volitional, deliberate action.
So, the concept of motivation includes all kinds of motives of human behavior. Motive is a conscious element of motivation.
It is necessary to distinguish between concepts "motive" and "motivation". Motivation - this is a general motivation for activity in a certain direction. The most elementary form of motivation is drives - experiences of unconscious needs, predominantly of a biological nature. attraction do not have a specific focus and do not give rise to a specific volitional act. The general contours of goals are formed at the stage of desires, but desires are not yet associated with decision making. At the next stage of preaction, at the stage of aspirations, a person decides to act in a certain direction in a certain way, overcoming certain difficulties. At the same time, the conditions and means of achieving the intentions that have arisen, the possibilities of their implementation are considered. As a result, the intention to perform a certain action is born.
Human behavior is activated by a wide range of urges that are a modification of his needs: inclinations, interests, aspirations, desires, feelings. Concrete human actions are realized in the system of concepts. A person understands why this particular goal should be achieved, he weighs it on the scales of his concepts and ideas.
Motivations to activity in a certain direction can be positive and negative feelings: curiosity, altruism, selfishness, self-interest, greed, jealousy, etc.
However, feelings, emphasizes B. V. Kharazishvili, being a general motivation for a certain kind of action, in themselves are not a motive for actions. Thus, selfish aspirations can be satisfied by various actions. A motive is the closure of an impulse to a specific goal. There can be no conscious, but unmotivated actions.
Applied to management Motivation is the process of motivating employees to work. Any leader, if he wants to achieve efficient operation his subordinates, should not forget about the incentives for them to work.
Motivation is the process of creating a system of incentives to achieve the goals set for the employee on the basis of taking into account and using his needs, value orientations, beliefs, worldview.
N. K. Semenov emphasizes that one can draw a conclusion about motivation only by observing the behavior or statements of people who represent a resource that is fundamentally different from all others that the manager manages.
Human activity in enterprises and organizations has a target character, moral value, which has a significant impact on the manners and behavior of the individual at work. The attitude towards managers is formed under the influence of the microclimate in the workforce, personal problems and other factors that are vital for the employee and have a great impact on his motivation.
The difficulty of identifying the feelings and emotions of a person is also explained by the fact that each person is a unique individuality. Each of them is the result of the evolution of many factors that are a unique combination that characterizes a particular person.
The effectiveness of any specific impact on workers depends on the individual and the particular situation that has arisen. Ideally, managers should study subordinates so well that they can link their working methods and approaches to employees with theirs. individual qualities. Studies of people's behavior show that they tend to be more similar to each other, especially in the field of motivation needs and motives of behavior (Robin Stekhan. Management. M., 1991. S. 427.).
If the manager prefers management activities use the idea of similarities in motivation rather than differences among employees, then there is a greater chance of achieving success in production activities. This does not mean that the personal interests of the individual will be rejected. Knowing about individual needs and requests, in the management of the primary level there is a real opportunity to take into account these differences and link them with the main, general trends in the development of the motivation of the employees of the unit.
The conciliatory approach in primary level management is based on the similarity of motives to a much greater extent than on their difference, and is more preferable for strengthening the motivation of workers and improving production activities. A conciliatory approach also promotes cohesion labor collective and creates a sense of belonging to a single team.
Quite often, motivation is seen as something that one person can give to another or do, perform for him. Managers sometimes talk about the conditions for giving employees the right to motivation or the condition to motivate them. However, the positive motivation of employees is not very easy to achieve, as it reflects an internal stimulus or impulse. Motivation cannot be ingested from the words of others or injected intravenously. It originates within a person.
A person is motivated when he is willing to follow the path that is being stimulated. Ultimately, motivation is a critical factor in the success of an organization. This is a category that is supported by numerous studies. The theories and ideas for understanding motivation discussed in this paper are fundamental in nature and have been presented in many publications. The largest number of interpretations is devoted to convergence, similarity of motives, and not differences.
2.
Most psychologists who study the behavior of people of personality are absolutely convinced that their behavior is justified, targeted, motivated. In other words, there is always a reason on the basis of which a person acts (choosing a path that, in his opinion, is rational; common sense, lack of control, etc.).
People are constantly striving to value anything that matters to their own needs and how they see themselves in their environment. Often it is impossible to directly realize why a person behaves the way he does. But even in this case, there are subconscious motives that determine a person's behavior in a particular situation (David Martin. Management. M, 1991, p. 446.)
For many millennia, employers have been able to influence employees to speed up the performance of labor operations while achieving the goal of an enterprise or organization. The traditional, simple, but quite rational method of motivation in the pre-market era was the "carrot and stick" method, based either on rewards or punishments. This method sometimes even now gives a good result, but its effect is usually short-lived.
Human behavior is always motivated, and it can be implemented with enthusiasm and enthusiasm in the implementation of productive, creative activities, and it can also manifest itself in avoiding work for various reasons. Any activity is based on a certain motive of behavior, which should be understood as active driving forces that determine the choice of a particular action by a person depending on a particular situation.
The manager is always interested in the conditions under which the employee is motivated to work after receiving a specific task. He needs to know what compels the employee to strive vigorously to complete the task, regardless of the many difficulties in the process of achieving it.
Comprehensive studies of labor motivation were carried out in the 20s. in the United States during the Hawthor of some experiments by the Western Electric company, as a result of which the main conclusion was made - employees like to feel their importance in the labor process, which is true and relevant at the present time (Lyubimova M. G. Management - the path to success. M., 1992, p. 13.)
In the same period, a lot of research work on the study of labor motivation was carried out by Soviet economists: Gastev A.K., Zhdanov L., Podgaetsky V.Ya., Strelbitsky S.D.
Gastev A.K. in 1920 organized the Central Institute of Labor (CIT) in Moscow and led it for almost 20 years. In his writings, he explored the problems of labor organization and management. Special attention he devoted himself to the study of critical aspects labor, as technical, psychophysiological, pedagogical, economic. In the latter, he primarily singled out samples of economic stimulation of labor.
Zhdanov L., being an employee of the Taganrog Institute for the Scientific Organization of Production, developed a management methodology, paying attention in his research to the creation of a direct and clear system of material interest of workers in the results of their work.
Many researchers believe that, along with material interest, the strongest motivating factors are the atmosphere of friendly cooperation of all employees, the production mood created by the management apparatus, love for one's work, realized on the basis of abilities and inclinations.
Some scholars believe that the main motives that actively influence the behavior of an employee are material and moral circumstances, the appropriate amount of wages, and its timely payment; the interest of employees in the income of the enterprise; hygiene of working conditions - a bright room with clean air, normal temperature regime and air humidity of 40-70%; care of the management about the material and social needs of employees; constancy of personnel; favorable psychological atmosphere in the team; moral encouragement; promotion, etc.
It is the leader who must create such an environment in the team that would stimulate the employee to highly productive work based on the growth of material well-being and increase his position in the hierarchical ladder of the enterprise.
Unfortunately, the rejection of the NEP at the end of the 20s. in the USSR and the transition to an administrative-command system of managing the country's economy in the next six decades did not allow the development of the theory and practice of labor motivation inherent in a market economy.
However, studies by Soviet scientists in the field of economic, social, psychological aspects of labor positive influence on the development of motivation theories developed at different times by economists, sociologists, psychologists, lawyers, entrepreneurs in many countries of the world.
In conditions market economy Entrepreneurs, managers, specialists are striving to create a long-term, decades-long system of employee motivation. This approach makes it possible to successfully implement any strategic and long-term tasks for the development of enterprises for their more successful functioning in the post-industrial era. Currently, motivation theories are divided into two groups - substantive and procedural. The first one includes the theories and studies of A. Maslow, K. Alderfer, David McCleland, Frederick Herzberg.
The essence of theories based on the content approach is that people have a motive to satisfy specific, well-defined and more or less foreseen needs.
A. Maslow's theory
The famous psychologist Abraham Maslow developed the concept of a hierarchy of needs. According to his approach, needs are ranked from lowest to highest on a priority basis. They usually overlap and are interconnected, and they can also be grouped into five blocks.
Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of human needs implies that people mainly seek to satisfy them in a certain sequence, taking into account the importance for the maintenance of life. As long as the lower level or primary needs are not satisfied, a person has little desire to move to another level. And when one level of needs is more or less satisfied, only then does a person concentrate his efforts to meet the needs at the next level, and at the same time new motives for his behavior are formed. Maslow believed that the realization of the needs of a lower level for a certain time frees a person, at least for a while, from the worries and efforts at this level.
At the first level, there are physiological (or biological) human needs that everyone needs to fulfill: food, housing, rest, recuperation, and others. In fact, every worker considers work to be a means of meeting these fundamental needs. The salary should allow a person to satisfy vital needs with a sufficient level of comfort.
Once physiological needs are actually satisfied, other needs come to the fore. The need for security is to protect everyone from external threats and protect from the worries and insecurities in life.
Most workers want to have a sense of security or control over the future. In this regard, many employers offer a range of costs for various activities, such as medical needs, pension costs, hospital maintenance, life insurance, disability. Employers in the plans include measures to protect employees from various unexpected events.
Salaries and incomes should provide a set of measures in firms for workers to protect both physiological needs and safe life. At the same time, these measures enable the firm to compete in the labor market by attracting the most competent workers to the enterprise.
Many scientists note that group motivation can have a powerful impact on the behavior of workers in a production situation, both in negative and positive directions. For example, several employees may, after consulting, perform work in a way opposite to that indicated by the manager, and at the same time feel like an informal group.
Positive motivation can have a powerful effect on helping a manager achieve above-average performance that is exceptional for other employees. The latter result is much easier to achieve in several workplaces and more difficult in others. In addition, some employers value or support their employees' out-of-service social or athletic achievements, which helps them meet their social needs and be loyal to organizations as a whole.
Closely related to the social need is the need for respect and self-respect, which means that each person has an interest in evaluation, achievements. This need can be complex, as it is associated with the desire of the individual for self-affirmation and its significance. Unfortunately, not every job provides an opportunity to meet this need. Often a manager can see the direction in which the most significant labor needs of the individual can be satisfied.
At the highest level is the human need for self-realization. This is the most important need that most people strive to achieve throughout their working lives. It includes the desire to realize the abilities and potentialities of the individual on the basis of a creative approach and spending time to achieve the desired goal within the limits of all its forces.
Hypothetically, the highest level of needs cannot be achieved until the individual realizes his full potential. Thus, these needs theoretically persist throughout a person's life, and it is possible that they will never be achieved even with his greatest efforts.
There are many types of work in which a person comes to disappointment faster than he fully reaches the highest level of self-realization. It is known that some production and managerial work are routine and monotonous. In this case, workers must seek self-assertion in everyday work, sports, self-education, and even family relationships.
Theory of K. Alderfer
Slayton Alderfer was a kind of critic of the theory of motivation, who proposed to reveal motivation with the help of three basic needs (Prokushen E. F. Management. M., 1999. P. 45.):
The desire for physical well-being, health - the need for existence;
The desire for satisfaction in interpersonal relationships - the need for communication;
The desire for long-term growth and development is the need for a career.
Despite a certain similarity between these two theories, the following differences between Alderfer's theory of motivation and Maslow's theory are noticeable:
Quite often, workers who have not achieved the successful realization of lower needs quite successfully solve problems related to higher needs;
The promotion of an employee up the career ladder does not always lead to the satisfaction of the needs of the individual;
If a worker has failed in his career, then very often he may be pursued by failures in the performance of any work at lower levels.
Alderfer's theory of motivation, in our opinion, quite constructively complements Maslow's five-level theory of needs.
Alderfer's three-level model does not adhere to strict regulation in the consistent implementation of needs within each of the levels. The sequence of realization of needs at a particular level depends on the priorities of the individual. For example, young people usually give greater preference to social needs compared to the needs for respect, self-respect, and only with age does the reverse preference become established.
Although the five-step hierarchy of needs model is more refined and accurate, many managers prefer to use the three-level model of the human needs hierarchy. Of course, in life, the variety of needs is much wider than those outlined in Maslow's model. It is only known that almost all people first of all seek to satisfy the needs of the lower level, and only then they move on to the realization of the needs of the higher level (Killen K. Management Issues. M., 1998. P. 23.).
One of the authoritative content motivational theories is the theory of David McCledand, based on taking into account such needs of higher levels as power, success, involvement. From McCleland's point of view, the need for power manifests itself in the form of a desire to influence, influence other people. Individuals with a need for power, as a rule, frankly and energetically defend their desire for leadership, their initial positions, expressing their intention to lead a group, a collective.
The need for success is located between the need for respect and self-realization according to the theory of A. Maslow. People with a great desire for success avoid increased risk, boldly take responsibility in solving various problems and overcoming obstacles that hinder the achievement of the goal. They are proactive and consistent in getting things done.
Motivation, based on the need for involvement, is manifested in the desire of the individual to establish friendships, help others, cooperate, and establish constructive interpersonal relationships.
The manager can and should ensure that the need for belonging is satisfied by involving subordinates in work that will maximize the opportunities for communication.
Theories or models of the hierarchy of human needs are rated as very useful, although the complexity of the individual is so great that care must be taken when interpreting and using these models or explaining all aspects of human behavior. Be that as it may, managers can use needs hierarchy models as a starting point for assessing, capturing those needs that are most important for understanding motivation.
One of the main problems of managers is understanding the needs of employees, which allows them to get job satisfaction when performing it at a high level.
Ultimately, all motivational actions are essentially personally oriented, which allows an experienced manager to influence a subordinate on the basis of an individual approach in order to improve performance, while ensuring the realization of the personal needs of employees.
On the present stage development of the economy, most workers hope for a good salary and long-term promising activities. In such circumstances, the key to positively motivating employees may lie in better satisfying the needs of the highest level of the individual. However, at the same time, managers should not forget that better incomes, favorable working conditions, and regular pay do not guarantee a high quality of work.
For many, these factors play a secondary role in their daily motivation. Paradoxically, but often negative motivation, which is quite widespread at the present time, is characteristic of highly paid and socially protected workers.
Actions or conditions that do not allow for the satisfaction of personal needs ultimately lead to dissatisfaction and frustration. Thus, when needs are not met at work, many workers resort to behaviors that are unfavorable to the work process and the organization. A typical approach to the work of a frustrated worker is that he seeks to avoid intense activity. This leads to the fact that employees will mediocrely perform their duties. They see the satisfaction of needs only through the prism of salary.
Another approach to work with negative motivation, adopted in management, is called feigning behavior. Such workers are looking for a reason to constantly be distracted from work, to violate the established labor system. They are often absent, late, break the rules, try to create controversial, conflict situations.
Another part of the workers, dissatisfied with their position, begins to behave aggressively, which, in the end, leads to the need for dismissal. Forms of aggressive behavior are incorrect self-esteem, vandalism, theft, fights, irascibility. When the situation becomes restless and tense in the team, the manager is forced to fire people who create an unconstructive environment in the unit. negative actions of this kind.
Obviously, these types of reactions in work situations are undesirable and must be prevented. Losses due to staff turnover, absenteeism, lateness, poor quality work and other violations labor regime can be quite large in an organization.
Before confronting manifestations of negative motivation, the manager must help employees cope with a threatening, frustrating situation, find a source of problem solving and create opportunities for positive motivation.
Theory of F. Herzberg
In this case, the motivational-moral theory, sometimes called the two-factor theory of motivation, developed mainly by Frederick Herzberg, can be of great help to the manager. Herzberg's research shows that a number of factors that managers commonly use to motivate people indicate their dissatisfaction with a particular situation to a greater extent than they are used as positive influences.
Herzberg and other scholars have conducted numerous studies in which respondents were asked to describe events and circumstances that influenced their attitudes and feelings about work for good or bad. Other questions reflected the depth of their feelings, the direction of emotions and feelings, revealed the type of situations that mobilized or frustrated workers.
Similar studies were conducted with employees of various companies in various industries, including management personnel. different levels and specialists. It is noteworthy that the general meaning of the research results turned out to be practically ...
Motivation is an inducement to activity by a combination of various motives, the creation of a specific state of the individual, which determines how actively and with what direction a person acts in a certain situation. A need is an objective need for something that a person himself may not experience or be aware of. A need is a subjective mental state of an individual, expressed in a person's experience and awareness of the need for what is necessary to maintain the existence of his organism and the development of his personality. The motive (from Latin movere - set in motion, push) is a predominantly conscious internal motivation of a person to a certain behavior aimed at satisfying certain needs. According to A. N. Leontiev, a motive is an objectified need. The motive acts as a consideration on which the subject must act. Therefore, the motive gives the need a certain direction. Motivation is the process of influencing a person in order to induce him to certain actions by awakening certain motives in him. The effectiveness of management to a large extent depends on how successfully the process of motivation is carried out.
The goal is one of the elements of human behavior and conscious activity, which characterizes the anticipation in thinking of the result of the activity and the ways of its implementation with the help of certain means. The goal acts as a way of integrating various human actions into a certain sequence or system. Purpose and motive do not match. For example, a person may have a goal - to change their place of residence, and the motives may be different: to improve their position; change the circle of communication, bring the place of work closer to the place of residence; live next to relatives, etc. Some of the motives may not be realized by a person. Incentives are tools that cause the action of certain motives. Some objects, actions of other people, carriers of obligations and opportunities act as incentives - everything that can be offered to a person as compensation for his actions, or what he would like to acquire as a result of certain actions. Using a variety of incentives to motivate people provides an incentive process that takes many different forms. One of the most common is financial incentives. Incentives are fundamentally different from motivation. The difference lies in the fact that stimulation is a means by which motivation can be carried out. The higher the level of development of human relations in the organization, the less often incentives are used as a tool for managing people. Education, training as methods of motivating people determine the situation when members of the organization show an interested participation in the affairs of the organization, carry out the necessary actions without waiting or even without receiving any stimulating effect.
Motivation External motivation This is a means to an end, such as earning money, gaining recognition, or achieving a higher position. At the same time, it can be used in two directions: as an incentive in anticipation of benefits - the principle of hope; as a means of pressure in anticipation of shortcomings - the principle of fear. Intrinsic motivation This is the understanding of meaning, conviction. It arises if the idea, goals and objectives, the activity itself are perceived as worthy and expedient. In this case, a specific state is created that determines the direction of actions, and behavior will be the result of an appropriate internal setting, and this is true not only for a person, but also for an organization.
Formation of Conscious Behavior Based on Factors of Internal and External Motivation At the initial stage, external motivation should play the role of a support for creating an effective labor system. It can also be seen as an additional supportive stimulus during the period of consolidation. However, long-term motivation and effective changes in the behavior of employees are achieved only if internal motivation is created.
They are based on the study of human needs, which are considered as the main motives for conducting, and therefore, activities. "Theory of the Hierarchy of Needs" by A. Maslow, "ERG Concept" by K. Alderfer, "Theory of Acquired Needs" by D. Mack. Clelland, "Two Factor Model" by F. Herzberg. Based on the consideration of motivation as a process. Within the framework of this approach, the distribution of efforts of employees and the choice of a certain type of behavior in order to achieve specific goals are taken into account. "Expectation Theory" by V. Vroom, "The Theory of Justice" by S. Adams, Porter-Lawler Theory.
Abraham Maslow "Hierarchy of Needs Theory" short biography Abraham Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York, in 1908. He studied psychology at the University of Wisconsin. He received a bachelor's degree in 1930, a master's degree in humanities in 1931, and a doctorate in 1934. In the mid-thirties, he began work on what became the main work of his life, the book Personality”), published in 1954. In 1943, he published two works: “A Preface to Motivation Theory” (“Introduction to the Theory of Motivation”) and “A Theory of Human Motivation” (“Theory of Human Motivation”), where formulated a positive theory of motivation, which he defined as "generalized dynamic". Between 1947 and 1949 Maslow left his academic career and formed the Maslow Cooperage Corporation, deciding to go into business of his own. However, he retained his academic connections and continued to publish articles in scientific periodicals during this period as well. Returning to academia, he became first an adjunct professor and then a full professor and head of department at Brandeis University of Massachusetts.
Abraham Maslow is widely recognized as the founder of the humanistic theory of personality. His theory of personality self-actualization, based on the study of healthy and mature people, clearly shows the main themes and provisions characteristic of the humanistic trend in psychology. From the point of view of humanistic psychology, the very essence of a person constantly moves him in the direction personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency, unless extremely strong circumstances of the environment interfere with this. Proponents of humanistic psychology also argue that people are the highest degree conscious and intelligent creatures without dominant unconscious needs and conflicts. In general, humanistic psychologists view people as active creators of their own lives, with the freedom to choose and develop a lifestyle that is limited only by physical or social influences. “Life is a process of constant choice. At every moment a person has a choice: either retreat or advance towards the goal. Either a movement towards even greater fear, fears, protection, or the choice of a goal and the growth of spiritual forces. To choose development instead of fear ten times a day means ten times to advance towards self-realization. A. Maslow "If you intend to become a less significant person than your abilities allow, I warn you that you will be a deeply unhappy person." A. Maslow
It was created in 1943. The theory of the hierarchy of needs is based on the following pattern: when a need of one level is satisfied, a need arises. Secondary needs of the next, higher level. Needs Human behavior is determined by the lowest unsatisfied need. Satisfied need ceases to motivate. The conclusion is obvious - only unmet needs Primary act as motivators. However, Maslow's needs makes an exception to this rule when he considers self-actualization. At this level, positive emotions caused by satisfaction increase the desire for further self-realization. Complete satisfaction of the need for self-actualization is rarely, if ever, achieved. The main criticism of Maslow's theory comes down to the fact that she failed to take into account the individual differences of people. The concept of the most important needs has not received full confirmation either. The satisfaction of any one need does not automatically activate the needs of the next level as a factor in motivating human activity.
Clayton Alderfer "Theory of Existence, Relationship and Growth" (ERG Concept) Created in 1972. Just like A. Maslow, Clayton Alderfer in his theory (ERG - existence, relatedness, growth) proceeded from the fact that human needs can be grouped into separate groups. However, in contrast to A. Maslow's theory of the hierarchy of needs, he believed that there were three groups of needs. These three groups of needs, as well as in Maslow's theory, are arranged hierarchically, but the difference is that needs (Maslow) move in both directions, and not Self-actualization sequentially from the bottom up, like Growth ) Respect, recognition of Maslow. At the same time, Alderfer Involvement, belonging, believes that in the case of Social needs, the connection (Relatedness) of dissatisfaction with the needs of the upper level increases Security Existence (Existence) the degree of action of the need Physiological needs of a lower level, which In accordance with Alderfer's theory, the hierarchy switches a person's attention to needs reflects climbing from more specific this level. needs to less specific ones. when the need is not satisfied, there is a switch. He believed that to a more specific need. And this process determines the presence of reverse movement from top to bottom. Alderfer calls the process of moving up the levels of needs the process of satisfying needs, and the process of moving down - the process of frustration, that is, defeat in the desire to satisfy the need.
David Mac. Clelland "The Theory of Acquired Needs" Brief biography of David Clarence Mack. Clelland was born on May 20, 1917 in Mount. Vernon, New York. At the end high school he entered McMurray College in Jacksonville, Illinois, where he studied languages, primarily German. These activities did not arouse enthusiasm in the young man. By chance, on the advice of one of his teachers, he turned to reading psychological literature and became so interested in this subject that it was in this direction and decided to continue his education. He entered Wesleyan University and successfully graduated in 1938 with a bachelor's degree in psychology. He earned his master's degree a year later at the University of Missouri, and his doctorate in 1941 at Yale. In 1942 Mac. Clelland moves to Connecticut and becomes a professor at Wesleyan University. Four years later, he becomes dean of the Department of Psychology at Wesleyan University. In 1952-1953, D. McClelland was the head of the program of the H. Ford Foundation. In 1963, he founded his own company, which was then transformed into Mc. Ber&Company (this corporation is currently engaged in consulting and training of personnel managers). From 1949 to 1987 D. McClelland - professor and dean of the faculty social relations Harvard University, and in 1987 he moved to work at Boston University.
The main works of Dweed McClelland: - "The Achievement Society" - "The Drinking Man: Alcohol and Human Motivation" - "Human Motivation" For more than half a century of scientific activity, the scientist paid attention to a wide range of problems, but in the history of science he remained primarily as a brilliant researcher of motivation, in particular - achievement motivation. This concept itself is mainly associated with his research. McClelland did not limit his reasoning to the sphere of scientific psychology. In 1961, his book The Achievement Society was published, in which he put forward an interesting hypothesis: achievement motivation is the most important guarantee of economic prosperity. Having assessed the degree of expression of the corresponding motive in society, it is possible to predict with a fair degree of certainty the trend towards economic growth. In 1973, McClelland appeared in the American Psychologist with an article in which he pointed out the low predictive value of IQ testing and called for more attention to be paid to the motivational side of any activity. Subsequently, these judgments of his were quoted a thousand times, sometimes even being brought to the point of absurdity: “Abilities are nothing, motivation is everything!” The author himself was not at all so categorical. McClelland's ideas have revolutionized the practice of selection in many industries, primarily professional selection. Based on McClelland's ideas, it is most rational to select people for the relevant activity based on their motivation and personal characteristics, because if necessary, the necessary skills are not so difficult to train them. Over the long years of his scientific activity, McClelland has received many honorary awards (in the American biographical reference book "Psychology", in which he appears among 500 outstanding psychologists of all time, their list takes up half a page), including the prestigious American Psychological Association Award for Outstanding Contribution into science."
It was created in 1962. Without denying the significance of previous theories and their conclusions about the importance of biological and other "basic" needs in motivating the behavior of workers, Mack. Clelland tried to identify the most important among the "secondary needs", which are updated subject to sufficient material security. He argues that any organization provides an employee with the opportunity to fulfill three higher-level needs: power, success and belonging. On their basis, a fourth need also arises, namely the need to avoid trouble, i.e. obstacles or opposition in the realization of the three named needs, for example, situations that do not allow success, that can deprive a person of power or group recognition. All employees to some extent experience the need for success, power and belonging. However, in different people these needs are expressed in different ways or exist in certain combinations. How they are combined depends, in addition to innate qualities, on personal experience, situations and human cultures. The need for success (according to Maslow's classification, it is between the needs for respect and self-realization) is not equally expressed in different workers. A success-oriented person usually desires autonomy and is willing to take responsibility for the results of their work. He seeks to regularly receive information about the “frontiers he has taken”, wants to know about the specific results of his work, is more organized, able to foresee and plan his actions. Such people strive to set realistically achievable goals, to avoid unreasonable risks. They get satisfaction not so much from the reward for the work done, but from the process of work itself, especially from its successful completion. The need for success is subject to development, which can be used to improve performance. Success-oriented people are more likely than others to achieve it. In the process of motivating employees, managers must take into account the characteristics of people with a pronounced need for success, giving them appropriate tasks.
The need for power is expressed in the desire to influence other people, control their behavior, as well as in the willingness to be responsible for others. This need is expressed in the desire to leadership position. It has a positive effect on the effectiveness of leadership. That is why it is advisable to select people with a pronounced need for power for leadership positions. Such people have high self-control. They are more committed to their organization, passionate about what they do, and work without regard to time. The need for belonging has a great influence on the behavior of people in an organization. It manifests itself in the desire to communicate and have friendly relations with other people. Employees with a strong need for belonging achieve high results first of all in tasks that require a high level of social interaction and good interpersonal relationships. Based on his research, Mac. Clelland identified three types of managers: 1) institutional managers with a high level of self-control. They are characterized by a greater need for power than for group affiliation; 2) managers in whom the need for power prevails over the need for belonging, but in general people of this type are more open and socially active than institutional managers; 3) managers in whom the need for belonging prevails over the need for power; they are also open and socially active. According to Mac. Clelland, managers of the first two types manage their departments more effectively mainly due to their need for power. However, a combination of all three types of managers can be beneficial to an organization. To improve the motivation of managers, it is advisable to widely use competitive methods to achieve goals and mark people who achieve the highest efficiency in their work. Leaders should also set challenging but realistic goals for themselves and their subordinates. The main advantage of the Mac theory. Clelland is that she was able to take into account the individual differences of people. However, its use is expedient only under the condition of sufficient material security, in an economically developed society, where the necessary level of satisfaction of primary needs has been achieved.
Frederick Herzberg "The Two Factor Theory of Motivation" Author's biography Frederick Irwin Herzberg was born April 17, 1923 in Lynn, Massachusetts. He attended City College in New York where he studied history and psychology. When Herzberg was in his senior year, he had serious financial difficulties, and he decided to join the ranks of the American army. During his service, he was assigned to the newly liberated Dachau concentration camp, and what he saw there influenced his entire later academic career. At the end of the war, Herzberg completed his studies in New York and later, already at the University of Pittsburgh, received a master's and doctoral degree. As part of his doctoral studies, he studied with John Flanagan quantitative methods. Flanagan developed during the war years a method (which he called the "emergency method" or "incident method") for selecting individuals with the required characteristics to serve as pilots, gunners, and bombers in the Air Force. Herzberg was extremely impressed by the fact that Flanagan focused on "real incidents that happened to the subjects" and not on some abstract data of statistical analysis. As Herzberg writes, Flanagan's approach contained "something extremely important." Later, he spent a year at the Pittsburgh Health Center, where graduate students were trained, and wrote a paper there entitled "Mental Health is Not the Opposite of Mental Illness" ("Mental health is not the opposite of mental illness"). In the mid 50's. Herzberg became director of research at the Psychological Service of Pittsburgh, a non-profit psychological consulting company. Here he conducted a series of surveys designed to identify the labor attitudes of workers, their attitude to work, in order to subsequently develop certain principles of labor morality.
Frederik Herzberg was extremely interested in the conflicting information that he received in the course of interviews with workers. With financial support from the Buhl Foundation and local industrialists, Herzberg attempted to "create a unified classification of problem areas in the question of the attitude of workers to work on the material of two thousand articles, i.e., practically everything that was published on this issue between 1900 and 1955." Continuing to study the literature, Herzberg came to the conclusion that some factors of an individual's work attitudes can be classified as "satisfying", while others, not necessarily opposite factors, can be called "dissatisfied". This did not conflict with the approach he took when writing Mental Health is Not the Opposite of Mental Illness. The hypothesis underlying the research published in 1959 under the title "The Motivation to Work" ("Work motivation"), was taken from there. This research led to the creation of a theory that Herzberg called "motivation-hygienic" and which became the basis for further publications. In 1966, he published the book Work and the Nature of Man, which dealt with the first ten stages of the original research. In 1968, his article One More Time: How Do You Motivate Your Employees? ” (“How do you stimulate your employees?”) appeared on the pages of the Harvard Business Review magazine and became its most popular publication, which sold over a million copies. Motivation-hygiene theory, together with the ideas of enrichment of work, made Hernzberg famous as a scientist (he became an honorary professor in the department of management at the University of Utah) and allowed him to become a consultant to such large corporations like AT&T, ICI, Texas Instruments, British Petroleum and Shell. Herzberg's habit of traveling the world and his use of films made him perhaps the first international "guru" in the field of management. Frederik Herzberg has held consultations and seminars in more than thirty countries, in 275 different industries, governments and social organizations, at 175 professional societies and 100 universities.
Created in 1959. Herzberg's theory was derived from a study involving two hundred engineers and accountants. They were all asked two questions: “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally good at work? and “Can you describe in detail when you feel exceptionally bad at work? » . As a result of the study, two groups of factors were identified that do not equally affect labor motivation. Herzberg called the first group of factors hygiene factors (hygienic factors), the second - motivating factors. The term "hygiene" is used here in its medical meaning - hygiene as a warning, prevention of disease, and not as a cure for it. By themselves, hygiene factors do not cause satisfaction, but their deterioration gives rise to dissatisfaction with work. Hygienic factors include: relationships with colleagues, superiors and subordinates; schedule and mode of operation; wage; control method; administration policy; the quality of leadership; physical working conditions; job security and stability. The second group of factors are motivators that directly cause job satisfaction, a high level of motivation and labor achievements. They act as stimulants of effective work. Motivators include: achievement of goals, recognition, interesting content of work, independence (one's own area of work) and responsibility, professional and official growth, opportunities for personal self-realization. Summarizing the results of his research, Herzberg made a number of conclusions: 1) The lack of hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction. 2) The presence of motivators can only partially and incompletely compensate for the absence of hygiene factors. 3) Under normal conditions, the presence of hygiene factors is perceived as natural and does not have a motivational effect. 4) Positive maximum motivational impact is achieved with the help of motivators in the presence of hygiene factors.
Significance of F. Herzberg's theory Herzberg's model differs from many motivational theories in that it denies simple alternativeness in the impact of various motivational factors on job satisfaction. Herzberg's Graph The main practical implication of Herzberg's theory is that managers should be differentiated and very cautious about the use of different incentives and, when lower-level needs are sufficiently satisfied, not to rely on hygiene factors as the main ones. Conversely, they should not waste time and money on the use of motivators until the hygiene needs of employees are satisfied.
Despite the significant step forward in the development of the theory of motivation, which was made by substantive concepts in this direction, they are not without certain shortcomings, which include: 2. Underestimation of the individuality of human activity. Meaningful concepts of motivation attempt to confine human behavior to a rigid hierarchy or set of intrinsic values. 3. The impossibility of establishing a clear correlation between various human needs due to the lack of a universal theory of human activity. These shortcomings, which inevitably included all substantive theories of motivation, tried to overcome other researchers in the field, who developed other motivational models, called procedural.
Motivational process Motivation is a complex process, the course of which depends on many factors. Simplistically, the scheme of the motivational process can be divided into six stages: STAGE 1. The emergence of a need. The person feels that something is missing. He decides to take some action. Needs are very different, in particular: physiological; psychological; social. STAGE 2. Finding ways to provide a need that can be satisfied, suppressed or simply ignored. STAGE 3. Definition of goals (directions) of action. A person fixes what and by what means he should do, what to achieve, what to get in order to eliminate the need. STAGE 4. Action implementation. A person expends efforts to carry out actions that open up the possibility for him to acquire what is needed to eliminate the need. Since the work process affects motivation, goals can be adjusted at this stage. STAGE 5. Receiving rewards for the implementation of the action. Having done necessary work, a person receives what he can use to eliminate the need, or what he can exchange for what he wants. It reveals how the implementation of actions provided the desired result. Depending on this, there is a change in motivation for action. STAGE 6. elimination of need. A person either stops activities before a new need arises, or continues to look for opportunities and take actions to eliminate the need.
Victor Vroom "Expectancy Theory" Brief Biography Victor Vroom is a contemporary Canadian problem researcher organizational behavior, psychologist, lecturer and consultant in management sciences. Born August 9, 1932 in Montreal (Canada). Received a bachelor's degree from McGill University (1953). Master's degree from McGill University (1955), Doctorate from the University of Michigan (1958). Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Michigan from 1958 to 1959. Winner of the G. Ford Foundation Doctoral Dissertation Competition (1958). Senior Lecturer in the Department of Psychology at the University of Pennsylvania (1960 -1963). Received a H. Ford Foundation Fellowship in 1961. Associate Professor of Industrial Management at the Carnegie Institute of Technology (1963 -1966). Professor of Psychology and Industrial Leadership at Carnegie Mellon University (1966-1972). Winner of the McKinsey Foundation Research Competition (1967). Fulbright Scholarship Recipient. He received the James McKean Cattell Award from the American Psychological Association (1970), the Yale Alumni Association Achievement in Pedagogy Award (1994). Professor of Administrative Sciences and Psychology at Yale University (1972 -1973). Professor of Organization and Management (since 1973), Professor of Psychology at Yale University (since 1973). President of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (1980 -1981). In 1964, the fundamental work "Labor and Motivation" appeared, and in 1965 the book "Motivation in Management", which played an extremely important role in the development of the theory and practice of modern management.
It was created in 1964. The theory of expectations is based on the fact that the presence of an active need is not the only necessary condition for motivating a person to achieve a certain goal. A person must also hope that the chosen type of behavior will actually lead to the satisfaction or acquisition of the desired. Expectations can be thought of as an assessment by a given person of the likelihood of a certain event. Most people expect, for example, that graduating from college will enable them to gain best job and that if you work hard, you can get promoted. When analyzing motivation to work, motivation theory emphasizes the importance of three relationships: The relationship "labor costs - results" is the expected ratio between the effort expended and the results obtained. If there is no direct connection between the efforts expended and the results achieved, then motivation will weaken. There can be any number of reasons for this: due to incorrect self-esteem, due to poor preparation or incorrect training, or due to the fact that the employee was not given enough rights to complete the task. The performance-reward relationship is the expectation of a particular reward or reward in response to the level of performance achieved. If a person does not feel a clear connection between the results achieved and the desired reward, motivation will weaken. Similarly, if a person is sure that the results achieved will be rewarded, but with a reasonable effort he cannot achieve these results, then the motivation in this case will be small. The third factor is valency (the value of the reward or reward). Valence reflects the value attributed by a person to a particular reward. Since different people have different needs and desires for rewards, the specific reward offered in response to the results achieved may not be of any value to them. For example, an accountant may receive a salary increase for his efforts, while he was counting on the position of chief accountant. If the value of the remuneration received is low, then the motivation for labor activity will weaken.
The Expectancy Theory Motivation Formula Vroom's Expectancy Theory offers some tips for improving managers' performance.
Stacy Adams "The Theory of Justice" Created in 1963. American psychologist John Stacy Adams studied the principles of remuneration for work. Based on the results of research at the General Electric company, he formulated the "theory of justice". In her theory, Stacey Adams considers the motivation of an employee in terms of his assessment of the situation and the idea that he develops in this connection about the fairness of the relationship between him and the organization. At the same time, he compares himself with other people, comparing his contribution with their contribution, his remuneration for work with their remuneration. In this case, three options for the final assessment of such comparisons are possible: underpayment, fair payment, overpayment. Adams's theory suggests that workers strive to establish fair relationships with others and try to change those relationships that they regard as unfair. People can restore a sense of justice either by changing the level of effort expended or by trying to change the level of reward they receive. Thus, those employees who feel that they are underpaid compared to others can either work less intensively or seek higher remuneration. Those employees who believe that they are overpaid will strive to maintain the intensity of work at the same level or even increase it. However, studies show that usually when people feel they are underpaid, they work less intensively. If they feel they are being overpaid, they are less likely to change their behavior and activities.
The main conclusion of the theory of justice is that until people begin to believe that they receive a fair remuneration, they will reduce the intensity of work. If the difference in remuneration is due to different performance, then it is necessary to explain to employees who receive less that when their performance reaches the level of their colleagues, they will receive the same increased remuneration. Diagram of Adams' theory of justice
It was created in 1968. American researchers, psychologists Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler developed a complex procedural theory of motivation, which contains elements of the theory of expectations and the theory of justice. Five variables appear in this model: effort expended, perception, results obtained, reward, degree of satisfaction. At the same time, the results achieved depend on the efforts made, abilities and character of a person, as well as on his awareness of his role in the labor process. The level of effort expended will be determined by the value of the reward and the degree of confidence that a given level of effort will in fact entail a well-defined level of reward. In Porter's theory. Lawler establishes a relationship between reward and results, i.e. a person satisfies his needs through rewards for the results achieved.
The results achieved by an employee depend primarily on three variables: the effort expended (3), the abilities and character of the person (4) and his awareness of his role in the labor process (5). The level of effort expended, in turn, depends on the value of the reward (1) and how much the person believes there is a strong relationship between the effort expended and the possible reward (2). Achieving the required results (b) can lead to internal rewards (7), such as a sense of satisfaction from the work performed, confidence in one's competence and self-esteem, as well as external rewards (8) - praise from the manager, bonus, promotion. The dashed line between performance (6) and extrinsic rewards (8) means that there may be a link between the performance of an employee and the rewards given to him. These rewards reflect the opportunities defined by the manager for a particular employee and the organization as a whole. The dashed line between performance (6) and rewards perceived as fair (9) shows that people have their own opinions about the rewards they receive. Satisfaction (10) is the result of external and internal rewards, taking into account their fairness (9). Satisfaction is a measure of the real value of a reward (1). This evaluation will influence the person's perception of future situations. One of the most important conclusions of the theory of L. Porter - E. Lawler is that productive work leads to employee satisfaction. This is in direct opposition to the view of most managers and early human relations theories that satisfaction leads to high performance at work, or in other words, happier workers perform better. The validity of the point of view of L. Porter and E. Lawler that high performance is the cause of complete satisfaction, and not a consequence of it, is confirmed by research.
It has been established that only under certain conditions, an increase in wages stimulates an increase in labor productivity. The first is that people should attach great importance to wages. The second is that people should believe that there is a clear link between salary and productivity, and that an increase in labor productivity will necessarily lead to an increase in wages. Obviously, it is desirable for the staff to have a connection between wages and the achieved labor results. However, studies have shown that managers often evaluate an employee's effort based on their seniority and time spent at work, and not at all on the results achieved. To establish a link between wages and the achieved labor results, E. Lawler suggested dividing the employee's wages into three parts. One part of it is paid for the performance official duties and everyone who performs similar duties in the organization should receive the same remuneration for this. The second part is determined by seniority and cost-of-living factors. All employees of the company receive this part of the salary, but its size is automatically regulated. The size of the third part of the salary varies for each employee and depends on the results achieved by him in the previous period. For a bad worker, it should be minimal, for a good one it should be maximum: about the same as the first two parts combined. The size of the third part of the salary may vary depending on the results achieved by the employee in the previous period. The salary (its first two parts) can only be increased in connection with a change in the scope of responsibility assigned to the employee, length of service and an increase in the cost of living. The part of wages (the third) that is actually deserved and earned by a person can change quite sharply. Therefore, if the productivity of an employee decreases, then wages also decrease due to a decrease in its variable part. Thus, labor productivity entails changes in wages.
The Porter-Lawler model has some significant drawbacks: First, it does not include such an objective factor as working conditions. Even Herzberg emphasized the importance of this factor in the process of formation of motivation. Secondly, the model lacks a fundamental factor - needs. After all, without the existence of existing needs, a person will not enter into labor relations. In this regard, it can be noted that the model does not contain entry and exit conditions. labor relations and it is assumed that the worker has already joined them. Model of labor behavior of an employee
Let us explain some elements and connections of this model. Input variables highlighted in green are needs, incentives, estimates, expectations, and forecasts. Attention should be paid to special kind connections Incentives-Motives and Needs-Motives. In the absence of any of them, labor motives, and hence motivation, are not formed. The golden background in the model highlights independent factors: working conditions, abilities and character. These factors, together with Estimates, Expectations and Forecasts, affect the strength of motivation, which in turn determines the level of effort expected by the employee. Actual efforts depend on abilities, qualifications, character traits. It is the level of actual efforts and, consequently, the results of labor that are of interest to the governing bodies. You should also pay attention to the presence of such elements as Incentives and Rewards - the concepts are very close in meaning. But when considering this model in time, the meaning of these concepts becomes different. In this case, the elements Internal and External rewards are only the fact of their receipt, therefore, their stimulating role is not visible here.
A poorly built system of work with personnel, and, in particular, the system of employee motivation, often spoils the company's entire system of work. Indeed, as a result of insufficient attention to the issue of employee satisfaction, they remain dissatisfied with their workplace and their work. From here comes the not very high-quality work of dissatisfied people who simply do not want to give all one hundred percent of their capabilities. And where there is one dissatisfied person, there is often a whole dissatisfied team. As you know, one dissatisfied employee can win over to his side all the colleagues who "rebel" against the authorities. And this will lead either to a stupor in work, or to mass layoffs. Neither of these should be allowed by sane leaders.
The purpose of motivation is to increase the efficiency of the company. An effective motivation program is at the same time the goal of the company, the achievement of which will allow the fullest potential of each employee, and a means to achieve other goals of the company. 10 principles on which to base efficient system motivation in the company: 1. investment and return; 2. transparency of the system; 3. consistency and consistency, significance for employees; 4. dependence of income on the significance of the employee and his labor contribution; 5. close linkage of the remuneration system with the results; 6. exclusion of equalization; 7. promoting the goals of the organization; 8. additional conditions for outstanding employees; 9. realism; 10. Mandatory adjustment. For each organization, the process of creation, the very model of motivation is very individual. Unfortunately, there is no universal model that operates in any time intervals for all firms.
Topic of the lesson: Motives. Drivers of Personal Development
Teaching method: lecture
Form of organization of students' activities: group
Lesson objectives:
Tutorial: to characterize the concept of personality orientation; motives and motivation.
Educational: arouse students' interest in the subject, arouse curiosity, encourage students to be active
Developing: learn to highlight the main thing, build analogies
Lesson type: formation of new knowledge
As a result learning activities the student must:
- to know at the presentation level: what are motivational phenomena, types of motivations
-know at the level of understanding What is motive, motivation, direction,
-be able to freely navigate the material, speak freely on issues of the topic, navigate the motives of the individual's behavior
Material support: lecture, abstract
STUDY PROCESS
1. Organizing time. Checking for Students
2. Activation basic knowledge
What is a personality? How does this concept differ from the concepts of man, individual, individuality?
What do you think personality orientation is?
3. Setting goals and objectives of the lesson
4. Explanation of new material
Looking at another person, trying to understand him, we kind of ask: "What does he want? What can he do? And what is he?" These three questions are not only a program for the scientific study of personality, but also a guideline for self-knowledge.
Direction is the leading characteristic of personality. The orientation of the personality is a set of stable motives that guide a person to complete the tasks.
Enduring motives are relatively independent of current situations.
Personal orientation is based on needs as the main source of human activity. In order to live and act in the surrounding world, a person needs food, water, air, movement, he needs objects of material and spiritual culture, other people. Needs are the realization and experience by a person of the need for what is necessary to maintain the life of his organism and the development of his personality.
Psychology distinguishes between need and need. A need is an objective necessity that a person himself may not experience or be aware of.
For example, the human body constantly needs oxygen, which enters the blood through breathing. But this need becomes a need only when there is some kind of "deficiency": the respiratory organs get sick, the oxygen content in the atmosphere decreases. In this case, a person suffers from a lack of oxygen, takes some action to eliminate it, rejoices when he can breathe deeply. The objective state - need - was transformed into a mental state - need. Needs are biological (the need for food, air, movement, rest, etc.) and social, which have historically developed in human society. Social needs are divided into material (in clothing, housing, etc.) and spiritual (cognitive, aesthetic, creative, the need for communication).
A characteristic feature of human needs is their actual insatiability.
A. Maslow, one of the leading psychologists in the field of motivation research, developed a "hierarchy of needs". It consists of the following steps: 1 - physiological needs (lower needs controlled by body organs: breathing, food, sexual, etc.); 2 - security needs; 3-needs for communication, social contacts; 4 - the need for recognition, respect and approval, awareness of one's own dignity (prestige, social success); 5 - the need for self-actualization, in the implementation of oneself.
The emerging needs encourage a person to actively search for ways to satisfy them, become internal drivers of his activity.
A motive is an impulse to act in order to satisfy a particular need.
Motives are divided into unconscious and conscious . To conscious motives behaviors include desires, interests, inclinations, ideals, beliefs, worldview. Interests, inclinations, beliefs and ideals of the individual are stable motives and collectively express the worldview of the individual, are manifested in the spiritual needs and practical actions of the individual.
A wish- this is a motive, which is based on a need conscious in content, but it does not yet act as a strong incentive to act.
Interest- this is a selective attitude of a person to an object due to its vital significance and emotional attractiveness. Human interests are extremely diverse. For example, one student strives to study well because he has a highly developed thirst for knowledge, for another a good study is a means to win the respect of others, a third does not want to upset his parents, a fourth intends to go to college and is preparing a certificate with a high score, etc. It is very important to learn how to arouse interest in yourself and others. An example is the situation described in M. Twain's famous book "The Adventures of Tom Sawyer".
Tom is guilty, and Aunt Polly punishes him by whitewashing a huge fence (it's a well-known truth: making work a punishment is a sure way to disgust him).
Tom set to work without any enthusiasm. A problematic situation arose before him - to complete the task and at the same time not touch the fence. And here he is visited by a brilliant idea. Tom acted out a work scene with passion for Ben Rogers. With all his appearance, he demonstrated that whitewashing a fence is a pleasure, that it is a pleasant experience and, moreover, very unusual. And now Ben begs Tom to let him whiten a little and gives him his almost whole apple for this honor. From that moment on, all the boys who passed by bought from Tom the right to work that they would never have done in a different psychological situation. And without knowing it, Tom discovered the law that governs the actions of people: Work is what we are obliged to do, and Play is what we are not obliged to do. According to the orientation, interests are divided into material and spiritual. material interests are manifested in the desire for housing conveniences, for the acquisition of things that facilitate work and provide comfort. With the satisfaction of material needs, the developing personality goes beyond the limits of material interests, to spiritual interests.
Spiritual interests - these are the interests of growth. They have separate goals related to the desire to enrich and expand life experience, to update personal potential.
inclination It is a pronounced need of a person to engage in a certain activity.
There are many similarities between interest and inclination, but there are also differences.
For example, you can go to the cinema with pleasure, read books about outstanding actors, collect their photographs, etc. But at the same time not at all strive for activities in the field of cinema. In the same way, for example, many sports fans are known who go to stadiums, actively "cheer" for their favorite teams, but themselves ... do not even do morning physical exercises. There is interest, but no inclination.
Beliefs- is a system of motives of the individual, prompting to act in accordance with their views, principles. Beliefs act as a regulator of human behavior.
Ideal- this is the image by which the person is guided in the present and by which he determines the plan of his self-education. It should be noted that ideals change with age and, depending on their content, can have both positive and negative effects. bad influence on the development of personality.
outlook of a person is closely connected with the formation of ideals. It represents a system of a person's views on the world, on a person's place in it, on a person's attitude to the surrounding reality and to himself. It affects the whole appearance of a person, the totality of the features of behavior and actions, habits and inclinations.
To unconscious motives include attraction and attitudes.
attraction- this is a vague desire directed at some object or action and driven by an unexpressed need.
Attitude is the willingness to act in a certain way different situations. Installation is important because affects the nature of behavior, perception and communication.
The term "motivation" is a broader concept than the term "motive". Most often, motivation is a set of psychological causes that explain human behavior, its orientation and activity.
The question of the motivation of activity arises every time when it is necessary to explain the reasons for a person's actions.
Motivational phenomena are repeatedly repeated, over time become personality traits. Such features include the motive to achieve success and the motive to avoid failure.
Personality is also characterized by such motivational formations as affiliation, rejection motive, power motive, altruism, selfishness, aggression.
These are the motives, have great social significance, because determine the relationship of a person to people.
Affiliation- the desire of a person to be in the company of other people, to establish emotionally positive relationships with them. The antipode of affiliation is rejection motive, which manifests itself in the fear of being rejected, not accepted personally by familiar people. Power motive- the desire of a person to have power over other people, to control and dominate them. Altruism - the desire of a person to selflessly help other people; its antipode - selfishness as the desire to satisfy their personal needs, neglecting the interests of other people. Aggressiveness - the desire of a person to cause physical or moral harm to other people, to cause them trouble.
In the course of his entire conscious life, a person sets himself certain goals that he seeks to achieve. But before in order to do this, to carry out certain actions, a person has to overcome various obstacles. To overcome them, a person strains his mental and physical strength, shows strong-willed efforts.
Repetition of the material covered
Homework
Motivation to action;
A dynamic process of a psychophysiological plan that controls human behavior, determines its direction, organization, activity and stability;
3. the ability of a person to actively satisfy their needs.
motive
Motive (lat. moveo - I move) is a material or ideal object, the achievement of which is the meaning of activity. The motive is presented to the subject in the form of specific experiences, characterized either by positive emotions from the expectation of achieving this object, or by negative ones associated with the incompleteness of the present position. Understanding the motive requires inner work. For the first time the term "motivation" was used in his article by A. Schopenhauer.
Types of motivation
External motivation (extrinsic) - motivation that is not related to the content of a particular activity, but due to circumstances external to the subject.
Intrinsic motivation (intrinsic) - motivation associated not with external circumstances, but with the very content of the activity.
Positive and negative motivation. Motivation based on positive incentives is called positive. Motivation based on negative incentives is called negative.
Example: the construction “if I clean up the table, I will get candy” or “if I don’t mess around, I will get candy” is a positive motivation. The construction “if I put things in order on the table, then I will not be punished” or “if I do not indulge, then I will not be punished” is a negative motivation.
Stable and unstable motivation. Motivation that is based on the needs of a person is considered sustainable, since it does not require additional reinforcement.
There are two main types of motivation: “from” and “to”, or “carrot and stick method”.
Also distinguish:
Individual motivations aimed at maintaining homeostasis
Hunger
Thirst
Pain Avoidance
Striving for optimum temperature
Etc.
Group
Caring for offspring
Finding a Place in the Group Hierarchy
Maintaining the inherent community structure of the species
Etc.
cognitive
Exploratory Behavior
play activity
Self-affirmation motive- the desire to establish oneself in society; associated with self-esteem, ambition, self-love. A person tries to prove to others that he is worth something, seeks to obtain a certain status in society, wants to be respected and appreciated. Sometimes the desire for self-assertion is referred to as motivation for prestige (the desire to obtain or maintain a high social status).
Thus, the desire for self-affirmation, for raising one's formal and informal status, for a positive assessment of one's personality is an essential motivational factor that encourages a person to work intensively and develop.
Motive of identification with another person- the desire to be like a hero, an idol, an authoritative person (father, teacher, etc.). This motive encourages work and development. It is especially relevant for teenagers who try to copy the behavior of other people.
The desire to be like an idol- an essential motive of behavior, under the influence of which a person develops and improves. Identification with another person leads to an increase in the energy potential of the individual due to the symbolic "borrowing" of energy from the idol (object of identification): there are forces, inspiration, a desire to work and act in the same way as the geopolitical (idol, father, etc.) did. By identifying with the hero, the teenager becomes bolder. The presence of a model, an idol with which young people would strive to identify themselves and whom they would try to copy, from whom they would learn to live and work, is an important condition for an effective socialization process.
Power motive- the desire of the individual to influence people. Motivation for power (the need for power), under some circumstances, can be a significant driving force in human action. This is the desire to take a leadership position in a group (collective), an attempt to lead people, determine and regulate their activities.
The motive of power occupies an important place in the hierarchy of motives. The actions of many people (for example, leaders of various ranks) are motivated by the motive of power. The desire to dominate and lead other people is the motive that induces them in the process of overcoming significant difficulties and making great efforts. A person works a lot not for the sake of self-development or satisfaction of their cognitive needs, but in order to gain influence on individuals or a team.
A manager can be motivated to work not by the desire to benefit society as a whole or a separate team, not by a sense of responsibility, that is, not by social motives, but by the motive of power. In this case, all his actions are aimed at gaining or retaining power and constitute a threat both to the cause and to the structure he leads.
Procedural and substantive motives- motivation for activity by the process and content of activity, and not external factors. A person likes to perform this activity, to show his intellectual or physical activity. He is interested in the content of what he does. The action of other social and personal motives (power, self-affirmation, etc.) can enhance motivation, but they are not directly related to the content and process of activity, but are only external to it, therefore these motives are often called external, or extrinsic. In the case of the action of procedural-content motives, a person likes and encourages the process and content of a certain activity to be active. For example, a person goes in for sports because he simply likes to show his physical and intellectual activity (savvy and non-standard actions in sports are also essential success factors). An individual is encouraged to go in for sports by procedural and substantive motives in the case when the process and content of the game cause satisfaction, and not by factors that are not related to sports activities (money, self-affirmation, power, etc.).
The meaning of activity during the actualization of procedural and content motives lies in the activity itself (the process and content of activity are the factor that encourages a person to exercise physical and intellectual activity).
Extraordinary (external) motives- such a group of motives, when the motivating factors lie outside the activity. In the case of the action of extrinsic motives, it is not the content, not the process of activity that induces activity, but factors that are not directly related to it (for example, prestige or material factors). Consider some types of extrinsic motives:
the motive of duty and responsibility to society, a group, individuals;
motives for self-determination and self-improvement;
the desire to get the approval of other people;
the desire to obtain a high social status (prestigious motivation). In the absence of interest in activity (procedural-content motivation), there is a desire for those external attributes that activity can bring - for excellent grades, for obtaining a diploma, for fame in the future;
motives for avoiding troubles and punishment (negative motivation) - motives caused by the awareness of some troubles, inconveniences that may arise in case of failure to perform activities.
The motive of self-development- the desire for self-development, self-improvement. This is an important motive that encourages the individual to work hard and develop. According to Abraham Maslow, this is the desire to fully realize one's abilities and the desire to feel one's competence. As a rule, a certain courage is always needed to move forward. A person often clings to the past, to his achievements, peace and stability. Fear of risk and the threat of losing everything hold him back on the path of self-development.
Thus, a person often seems to be "torn between the desire to move forward and the desire for self-preservation and security." On the one hand, he strives for something new, and on the other hand, fear of danger and something unknown, the desire to avoid risk, hinder his progress. Maslow argued that development occurs when the next step forward objectively brings more joy, more inner satisfaction than previous acquisitions and victories, which have become something ordinary and even tired.
When it is possible to actualize the motive of self-development in a person, the strength of his motivation for activity increases. Talented coaches, teachers, managers are able to use the motive of self-development, pointing out to their students (athletes, subordinates) the opportunity to develop and improve.
Achievement motive - the desire to achieve high results and excellence in activities; it manifests itself in the choice of difficult tasks and the desire to complete them. Success in any activity depends not only on abilities, skills, knowledge, but also on achievement motivation. A person with a high level of achievement motivation, striving to get significant results, works hard to achieve his goals.
Achievement motivation (and behavior that is aimed at high results) even for the same person is not always the same and depends on the situation and the subject of activity. Someone chooses challenging tasks in mathematics, and someone, on the contrary, limiting himself to modest goals in exact sciences, chooses complex topics in literature, striving to achieve high results in this area. What determines the level of motivation in each specific activity? Scientists identify four factors:
Conditional, mobile, have a virtual character. The virtuality of needs lies in the fact that each of them contains its own other, a moment of self-negation. Due to the variety of conditions for implementation, age, environment, a biological need becomes material, social or spiritual, i.e. is transformed. In the parallelogram of needs (biological need-material-social-spiritual), the need that most corresponds to the personal meaning of human life becomes dominant, is better armed with the means of its satisfaction, i.e. the one that is more motivated.
The transition from need to activity is the process of changing the direction of need from within to external environment. At the heart of any activity is a motive that induces a person to it, but not every activity can satisfy the motive. The mechanism of this transition includes: I) the choice and motivation of the object of need (motivation is the substantiation of the object to satisfy the need); 2) in the transition from need to activity, the need is transformed into a goal and interest (a conscious need).
Thus, need and motivation are closely related: a need stimulates a person to activity, and a motive is always a component of activity.
The motive of man and personality
motive- this is what prompts a person to activity, directing him to satisfy a certain need. A motive is a reflection of a need that acts as an objective regularity, an objective necessity.
For example, the motive can be both hard work with enthusiasm and enthusiasm, and avoidance of burdens in protest.
Needs, thoughts, feelings and other mental formations can act as motives. However, internal motives are not enough to carry out activities. It is necessary to have an object of activity and correlate the motives with the goals that the individual wants to achieve as a result of the activity. In the motivational-targeted sphere, the social conditionality of activity comes out with particular clarity.
Under [[Motivational-need sphere of personality|need-motivational sphere Personality refers to the totality of motives that are formed and developed during a person's life. In general, this sphere is dynamic, but some motives are relatively stable and, subordinating other motives, form, as it were, the core of the entire sphere. In these motives, the orientation of the individual is manifested.
Motivation of a person and personality
Motivation - it is a set of internal and external driving forces that prompt a person to act in a specific, purposeful way; the process of motivating oneself and others to act in order to achieve the goals of the organization or personal goals.
The concept of "motivation" is broader than the concept of "motive". A motive, in contrast to motivation, is something that belongs to the subject of behavior, is his stable personal property, which prompts him to perform certain actions from the inside. The concept of “motivation” has a double meaning: firstly, it is a system of factors that influence human behavior (needs, motives, goals, intentions, etc.), and secondly, it is a characteristic of a process that stimulates and maintains behavioral activity at a certain level. level.
In the area of motivation stand out:
- the motivational system of a personality is a general (holistic) organization of all the motivating forces of activity that underlie human behavior, which includes such components as needs, motives proper, interests, drives, beliefs, goals, attitudes, stereotypes, norms, values, etc. .;
- achievement motivation - the need to achieve high results of behavior and satisfaction of all other needs;
- self-actualization motivation is the highest level in the hierarchy of personality motives, consisting in the personality's need for the fullest realization of one's potential, in the need for self-realization.
worthy goals, long-term plans, good organization will be ineffective if the interest of the performers in their implementation is not ensured, i.e. motivation. Motivation can compensate for many shortcomings in other functions, such as shortcomings in planning, but weak motivation is almost impossible to compensate for.
Success in any activity depends not only on abilities and knowledge, but also on motivation (the desire to work and achieve high results). The higher the level of motivation and activity, the more factors (i.e. motives) induce a person to activity, the more effort he is inclined to apply.
Highly motivated individuals work harder and tend to achieve better results in their activities. Motivation is one of critical factors(along with abilities, knowledge, skills), which ensures success in activities.
It would be wrong to consider the motivational sphere of a person only as a reflection of the totality of her own individual needs. The needs of the individual are connected with the needs of society, they are formed and developed in the context of their development. Some needs of the individual can be considered as individualized social needs. In the motivational sphere of the individual, one way or another, both his individual and social needs are reflected. The form of reflection depends on the position the individual occupies in the system of social relations.
motivation
Motivation - it is a process of influencing a person in order to induce him to certain actions by activating certain motives.
There are two main types of motivation:
- external influence on a person in order to induce him to perform certain actions leading to the desired result. This type is reminiscent of a trade deal: "I give you what you want, and you satisfy my desire";
- the formation of a certain motivational structure of a person as a type of motivation has an educational and educational character. Its implementation requires great efforts, knowledge, abilities, but the results are superior to the results of the first type of motivation.
Basic human motives
The emerging needs force a person to actively look for ways to satisfy them, become internal incentives for activity, or motives. The motive (from Latin movero - set in motion, push) is what moves a living being, for which it spends its vital energy. Being an indispensable "fuse" of any actions and their "combustible material", the motive has always acted at the level of worldly wisdom in various ideas about feelings (pleasure or displeasure, etc.) - motives, inclinations, aspirations, desires, passions, willpower, etc. d.
Motives can be different: interest in the content and process of activity, duty to society, self-affirmation, etc. So, the following motives can encourage a scientist to scientific activity: self-realization, cognitive interest, self-affirmation, material incentives(monetary reward), social motives (responsibility, desire to benefit society).
If a person strives to perform a certain activity, we can say that he has motivation. For example, if a student is diligent in his studies, he is motivated to study; an athlete who strives to achieve high results has a high level of achievement motivation; the desire of the leader to subordinate everyone indicates the presence of a high level of motivation for power.
Motives are relatively stable manifestations, attributes of a person. For example, arguing that a cognitive motive is inherent in a certain person, we mean that in many situations he manifests cognitive motivation.
The motive cannot be explained by itself. It can be understood in the system of those factors—images, relationships, and actions of the individual—that constitute the general structure of mental life. Its role is to give impulse and direction to the behavior towards the goal.
Motivating factors can be divided into two relatively independent classes:
- needs and instincts as sources of activity;
- motives as reasons that determine the direction of behavior or activity.
The need is a necessary condition for any activity, but the need itself is not yet able to set a clear direction for the activity. For example, the presence of an aesthetic need in a person creates a corresponding selectivity, but this does not yet indicate what exactly a person will do to satisfy this need. Perhaps he will listen to music, or perhaps he will try to compose a poem or paint a picture.
How are the concepts different? When analyzing the question of why an individual enters a state of activity at all, manifestations of needs are considered as sources of activity. If the question is being studied, what is the activity aimed at, for the sake of which these actions, actions are chosen, then, first of all, the manifestations of motives are studied (as motivating factors that determine the direction of activity or behavior). Thus, the need induces to activity, and the motive - to directed activity. It can be said that a motive is an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the subject. The study of the motives of educational activity among schoolchildren revealed a system of various motives. Some motives are basic, leading, others are secondary, secondary, they do not have independent significance and are always subordinate to the leaders. For one student, the leading motive for learning may be the desire to gain authority in the class, for another, the desire to gain higher education, the third has an interest in knowledge itself.
How do new needs arise and develop? As a rule, each need is objectified (and concretized) on one or more objects that are able to satisfy this need, for example, an aesthetic need can be objectified in music, and in the process of its development it can also be objectified in poetry, i.e. already more items can satisfy her. Consequently, the need develops in the direction of increasing the number of objects that are able to satisfy it; the change and development of needs occurs through the change and development of objects that correspond to them and in which they are objectified and concretized.
To motivate a person means to affect his important interests, to create conditions for him to realize himself in the process of life. To do this, a person must at least: be familiar with success (success is the realization of a goal); to be able to see oneself in the results of one's work, to realize oneself in work, to feel one's significance.
But the meaning of human activity lies not only in obtaining a result. The activity itself can be attractive. A person may like the process of performing an activity, for example, the manifestation of physical and intellectual activity. Like physical activity, mental activity in itself brings a person pleasure and is a specific need. When the subject is motivated by the process of activity itself, and not by its result, this indicates the presence of a procedural component of motivation. The procedural component plays a very important role in the learning process. The desire to overcome difficulties in learning activities, to test one's strengths and abilities can become a personally significant motive for learning.
At the same time, a productive motivational attitude plays an organizing role in the determination of activity, especially if its procedural component (i.e., the process of activity) causes negative emotions. In this case, goals, intentions that mobilize a person's energy come to the fore. Setting goals, intermediate tasks is a significant motivational factor that should be used.
To understand the essence motivational sphere(all composition, structure, which has a multidimensional and multilevel character, dynamics) it is necessary first of all to consider the connections and relations of a person with other people, given that this sphere is also formed under the influence of the life of society - its norms, rules, ideology, politics, etc.
One of the most important factors determining the motivational sphere of a personality is the person's belonging to a group. For example, teenagers who are interested in sports are different from their peers who are fond of music. Since any person is included in a number of groups and in the process of his development the number of such groups grows, naturally, his motivational sphere also changes. Therefore, the emergence of motives should be considered not as a process arising from the inner sphere of the individual, but as a phenomenon associated with the development of his relations with other people. In other words, the change in motives is determined not by the laws of spontaneous development of the individual, but by the development of his relations and ties with people, with society as a whole.
Personality motives
Personality motives - this is the need (or system of needs) of the individual in the function of motivation. Internal mental urges to activity, behavior are due to the actualization of certain needs of the individual. Activity motives can be very different:
- organic - aimed at meeting the natural needs of the body and are associated with the growth, self-preservation and development of the body;
- functional - are satisfied with the help of various cultural forms of activity, for example, playing sports;
- material - encourage a person to activities aimed at creating household items, various things and tools;
- social - give rise to various activities aimed at taking a certain place in society, gaining recognition and respect;
- spiritual - underlie those activities that are associated with self-improvement of a person.
Organic and functional motives together constitute the motivation for the behavior and activities of the individual in certain circumstances and can not only influence, but change each other.
They appear in specific forms. People may perceive their needs in different ways. Depending on this, motives are divided into emotional ones - desires, desires, inclinations, etc. and rational - aspirations, interests, ideals, beliefs.
There are two groups of interconnected motives of life, behavior and activity of the individual:
- generalized, the content of which expresses the subject of needs and, accordingly, the direction of the aspirations of the individual. The strength of this motive is due to the importance for a person of the object of his needs;
- instrumental - motives for choosing ways, means, ways to achieve or realize the goal, due not only to the need state of the individual, but also to its readiness, the availability of opportunities to successfully act to achieve the goals set in these conditions.
There are other approaches to the classification of motives. For example, according to the degree of social significance, the motives of a wide social plan(ideological, ethnic, professional, religious, etc.), group plan and individual-personal character. There are also motives for achieving the goal, avoiding failures, motives for approval, affiliation (cooperation, partnership, love).
Motives not only encourage a person to act, but also give his actions and actions a personal, subjective meaning. In practice, it is important to take into account that people, performing actions that are identical in form and objective results, are often guided by different, sometimes opposite motives, attach different personal meanings to their behavior and actions. In accordance with this, the assessment of actions should be different: both moral and legal.
Types of personality motives
To consciously justified motives should include values, beliefs, intentions.
Value
Value is a concept used in philosophy to indicate the personal, socio-cultural significance of certain objects and phenomena. Personal values form a system of its value orientations, elements internal structure individuals who are especially important to her. These value orientations form the basis of the consciousness and activity of the individual. Value is a personally colored attitude to the world that arises not only on the basis of knowledge and information, but also on one's own life experience. Values give meaning to human life. Faith, will, doubt, ideal are of lasting importance in the world of human value orientations. Values are part of the culture, received from parents, family, religion, organizations, school and environment. Cultural values are widely held beliefs that define what is desirable and what is right. Values can be:
- self-oriented, which concern the individual, reflect his goals and general approach to life;
- oriented by others, which reflect the desires of society regarding the relationship between the individual and groups;
- environmentally oriented, which embody society's ideas about the desired relationship of the individual with his economic and natural environment.
Beliefs
Beliefs - these are the motives of practical and theoretical activity, justified by theoretical knowledge and the whole worldview of a person. For example, a person becomes a teacher not only because he is interested in passing on knowledge to children, not only because he loves working with children, but also because he knows very well how much in the creation of society depends on the education of consciousness. This means that he chose his profession not only out of interest and inclination to it, but also because of his convictions. Deeply grounded beliefs persist throughout a person's life. Beliefs are the most generalized motives. However, if generalization and stability are characteristic features of personality traits, then beliefs can no longer be called motives in the accepted sense of the word. The more generalized the motive becomes, the closer it is to a personality property.
Intention
Intention- a consciously made decision to achieve a certain goal with a clear idea of the means and methods of action. This is where motivation and planning come together. Intention organizes human behavior.
The considered types of motives cover only the main manifestations of the motivational sphere. In reality, there are as many different motives as there are possible human-environment relationships.
For beginners: breeding a broiler at home Boiled water for broilers
Only lovers will survive
Features of advertising aimed at children
retouching old photos in photoshop retouching old photos
What is an NPO: decoding, definition of goals, types of activities Does a non-profit organization have the right