How people lived in the 19th century
Let's imagine Mother Moscow in the early 19th century, when the favorite places for Muscovites to walk were the railway station, Tverskoy Boulevard and Presnensky Ponds. There was only one boulevard in Moscow at that time - Tverskaya, planted with birches, later they were replaced with lindens.
Many Muscovites came to the boulevard every day. The aristocrats walked with their hats under their arms - a high hairstyle interfered. Merchants and bureaucrats stood in rows along the boulevard, not mixing with the aristocracy. Rich young people usually wore glasses, often heavily whitened. ruddy-faced and with furrowed brows. Some military men had artificially increased shoulders to appear more youthful.
Under Catherine II, ordinary people walked around Moscow in summer in dressing gowns or shirts, and in winter they wore sheepskin coats. The distinctive attire of a woman of a simple class was a veil, which was called a cape. On holidays, all the women appeared on the street - the old ones sat down on a bench at the gate to gossip. In winter, women and men skated, and sleighed from the mountains. In Kitaygorod, behind the Mytny Dvor, such a mountain was built by the famous Vanka Cain.
In the evenings, boyars and wealthy people were entertained by home cheerleaders; storytellers told stories and jokes. Wealthy houses had their own jesters and crackers, who amused our undemanding ancestors with empty and often rude jokes and antics.
Home theaters were fashionable then, where serfs and gentlemen themselves played. Among others, two theaters of Count Sheremetev were famous - in Kuskovo and Ostankino, Count Orlov - near Donskoy, Buturlin and Mamonov - in Lefortovo, near Musin-Pushkin - on Razgulay. The Apraksinsky Theater on Znamenka was especially famous. All the celebrities who visited Moscow played here, Italian opera was given.
Moscow has always been known for its hospitality.
Muzychenko usually gathered at the caretaker of the third state-owned wine warehouse on Maiden's Field on Saturdays. Here you could meet a lot of idle people. The gatekeeper of the government building identified the guests of the owner by appearance, and therefore never stopped the public passing by him. Muzychenko's apartment did not know any locks. He came who wanted and when he wanted. In the dining room there was always a herring with a side dish, bread, butter, lettuce, sausage and the inevitable forty "under the white head." If the owners were not at home, then there was a note: “Who wants tea - a samovar in the kitchen. Coal - in the stove under the stove. There is buckwheat in the oven. Just close the stove so that the spirit does not come out.
Somehow I can't even believe that all this was in today's hectic, multi-million dollar Moscow, filthy with the exquisitely ugly buildings of recent decades, choking on traffic jams.
What was, was. "PROFESSIONS OF OUR ANCESTORS"
There are many lanes in Moscow named after the occupations of the people who lived in them. Leather workers lived in Kozhevnichesky Lane, cap makers lived in Kolpachnoye Lane, and carpenters lived in Plotnikov Lane. Oddly enough, it was not boors, but weavers who lived in Khamovnichesky Lane. And who lived in Vorotnikovsky Lane? (Guards, or "collars.")
Translators (interpreters) used to live in Tolmachevsky Lane in Moscow, blacksmiths lived on Kuznetsky Most, and cap makers who made hats lived in Kolpachny Lane. And what was produced on Upper Bolvanovskaya Street? (Ingots for hats. Now this street is called Upper Radishchevskaya.)
In princely times, Kyiv was a real City of Masters. One of the most revered was the profession of those who were called "sorcerers working at the forge." What profession are you talking about? (Potter - from the word "miner", i.e. "sorcerer working at the forge.")
Carpenters in Russia were unsurpassed builders. Without a single nail, they were able to cut down the church and build a bridge. But from about the 10th century, stone structures began to be erected. Not only walls, but also houses were built of stone and brick. The name of the new profession comes from the building material from which bricks were made - clay. At that time, the word "clay" sounded like "zd", or "zod". What was the name of the new profession and buildings erected by such masters? (The architect who built the building.)
When in the 12-13 centuries. stokers in Russia went about their usual business, their main food was fish. Why?
(That's why that pirates were then called stokers, from the word "sink" ships.)
What was the standard-bearer called under Peter I?
(Once in Russia they called the banner an ensign. And under Peter I, the standard bearer was called an ensign.)
A representative of what profession in Russia was called a "goldsmith"?
(Jeweler.) During the time of Catherine II, there was a profession whose people burned gold leaf from their uniforms. It was done this way: clothes were placed on large baking sheets and thrust into the oven. The fabric decayed, and the gold flowed into the prepared buckets. Now the name of this profession, when applied to a person, has acquired an extremely negative connotation. According to Ozhegov's dictionary, this is a rogue, a rogue, a fisted man. What is this profession? (Burning.) Why did fabric merchants in Russia prefer to hire short sellers?
(In the old days, fabric was measured in elbows. Elbow is the distance from the elbow joint to the middle finger. For a small seller, the elbow is shorter, you can get more money for a piece of fabric.)
What was the second-hand dealer called: maklak or vahlak?
(Maclac.)
Who was called "ofen" in the old days: merchants or suitors?
(Merchants selling haberdashery, books, popular prints.)
Was the peddler in Russia engaged in trade or the manufacture of boxes from birch bark?
(Trade. Peddlers sold haberdashery goods, small things necessary in peasant life.)
On the way from the Embassy Court to the Kremlin, at one time you could go to the so-called lousy market, where various old things were sold, representatives of a certain profession also sat there. What kind of profession is this, if the German traveler Adom Olearius recalled that he walked around the square, as if on soft upholstery? (Barber, hairdresser - the whole area was strewn with hair.)
Ancient Russia. A person approaches an oak, pine or linden. He has an ax and a special knife in his hands, and wood-climbing spikes on his feet. What is his profession? (Bortnik- a person engaged in betting, from the word "bort"-tree hollow. beekeeping-the oldest form of beekeeping, in which bees live in tree cavities.)
In the Middle Ages in Russia, the spinning profession was one of the most common. There were several dozen varieties of spins that made different types of threads for different purposes. The two most basic specialties were called osnovnitsy and podochnitsy. What they were doing? (They made threads for the warp and weft, respectively. Wefts are transverse threads of fabric intertwined with longitudinal ones - the warp.)
According to Dahl's dictionary, since ancient times in Russia they called those who sew clothes, a simple peasant tailor. And later - a trashy little man. How? (Trash.) In which Russian city is the only monument in the world to barge haulers, whose hard labor made the Volga region rich? (In the city of Rybinsk, which at one time received the unofficial status of the "capital of barge haulers".)
For which of the royal entertainments was the Jägermeister previously responsible?
(For the hunt.) What is an assistant craftsman called?
(Journeyman.) In Russia, a negligent apprentice craftsman could be locked up with a tool and “put on bread and water” for a whole year. Only a four-legged friend could brighten up his loneliness. The masters that resulted from such training were very skillful. What was said about those of them who, due to hunger, treated their friend in the process of training in a very uncomradely way? (“I ate the dog in this case.”)
What is the name of the master who makes barrels?
(Cooper, or cooper.)
What name was given to all cheap cab drivers in pre-revolutionary Moscow?
(Vanka.) A servant in a tavern was called a sexual or dishware?
(Sexual.) How would our current bartender be called in the Russian state before the 18th century?
(The cupbearer. This executive, who was in charge of wine cellars, poured and brought drinks to the feast.)
Previously, it was a merchant, a trader, mostly foreign. And now - a familiar person whom you accept in your home. Who is it? (Guest.) What Russian painter liked to paint merchants, who were famous for their enterprising mind, and merchants - sleek and portly? (Boris Mikhailovich Kustodiev.)
Previously, in Russia, each person in this profession had his own teacher. Right to independent work the student received only after the death of the teacher. A person of this profession usually lived near his place of work and often, since the salary was small, he combined several more professions - he was both a trapper and a gravedigger. Name this job. (Ringer.) Representatives of what ancient profession were threatened by such two misfortunes as deafness and lightning strikes?
(To ringers.) Guess who our ancestors called the pestun?
(A caring educator. To nurture is to carefully, lovingly grow, educate, and also nurse.)
Translate into modern language the word "protective", which served as the name of one of the professions of our ancestors. (Bodyguard.) In the tale of P.P. Ershov "Humpbacked Horse" we read:
A sleeping bag here with a half lope Who is "Sleeper"?
(In the Russian state of the 11th-17th centuries - a courtier, whose duties included helping the Sovereign dress and undress.)
Previously, this word was used to call a maid who did dirty work, but now they call it a messy, dirty one. What's this word? (Chumichka.) What word in the old days was a derogatory name for a writer and journalist (it was used in the meaning of "scribbler")? ("Silkpen", from the phrase "to click a pen.")
What was the name of the philosopher in Russia?
(Lubomud, wisdom is philosophy.)
A clown or a clerk used to be called a "clown"?
(Clown.) Who in Russia in the XVIII - XIX centuries called horseman?
(A veterinarian who graduated from a special school.)
Was the interpreter or basmach in Russia an interpreter during the conversation and negotiations?
(Tolmach.) Who is called a hack writer in Dahl's dictionary: an informer or a stenographer?
(A stenographer. Now this is an ironic name for a person who writes quickly, hastily and superficially.)
Previously, this word was used to call the owner of the inn, but today they are called the worker who maintains cleanliness and order in the yard and on the street. What's this word? (Street cleaner.) Who in Russia were called representatives?
(Actors.) A figurine in the old days is ... Who?
(Magician, acrobat.)
What did the ore gun do in Russia, according to Dahl?
(He bled the sick. Usually this duty fell on the barbers.)
What did the lawyer do in Russia: jurisprudence, military affairs or cooking?
(Jurisprudence.)
A representative of what profession was called a sculptor in the old days? What about architects?
(Sculptor, architect.)
The Moscow Museum of what symbol of Russia became possible thanks to the hard work of fullers?
(Valenka Museum.) What was the name of the worker who did the laundry?
(Laundress.) Name the profession of people who, as a rule, were natives of Finland, carried a large spoon with a folding handle and had the right to visit the baths in 19th century Petersburg for free. (Chimney sweeps. With a spoon with a large folding handle, they scooped up ash from chimneys. In St. Petersburg in the 19th century, 2/3 of the chimney sweeps were Finns. After the revolution, they returned to their homeland.)
In Old Tallinn, they honestly fulfill all their duties. Not forgetting to bring happiness to those who touch them. Who are they? (Chimney sweeps.) “Without us, the human race will cease!” - Akulina Gavrilovna defended the honor of this profession in a play about the adventures of Misha Balzaminov. What is this profession? (Matchmaker.) Who was called a sworn attorney in 19th century Russia: a lawyer or a prosecutor?
(Lawyer.) What was the name of the railroad workers in the century before last?
(Travelers.) Representatives of what ancient profession use ruff, weights and cables as improvised means at work? (Chimney sweeps.) This profession is quite dangerous. Indeed, according to available data in Russia, of all those who were engaged in this difficult profession, only 60% survived to retirement (although they did not go on a well-deserved rest). Now we do not have this profession. What is this profession? (Tsar. Of all the Russian tsars, only 60% died of old age, the rest were helped to die.)
(To the censor.) Pickpockets as specialist thieves appeared only in the 17th century, after the appearance of pockets on clothes. Who was the professional forerunner of pickpockets in Russia? (Scammers. They cut off the wallet
-
moshnu.) What would our Minister of Defense in Ancient Athens be called?
(Strategist. He commanded all the troops in Athens. They were Pericles, Themistocles, Alcibiades.)
In ancient Rome - a teacher who taught children the basics of linguistics - grammar. The reading teacher is a writer. A slave who accompanied children to and from school is a teacher. And what was the name of the teacher of arithmetic in ancient Rome? (Calculator.) We draw information about the common people of ancient Rome mainly from epitaphs. Many inscriptions about gladiators and various artisans have been preserved. And only one single inscription conveyed to us information about the representative of this profession. His name was Furius Philokal, he lived in Capua, as the epitaph says, "poorly and honestly." Times are changing, but even now most of the representatives of this profession, well known to you, live in poverty and honesty. Name this job. (School teacher.)
What was the name of a teacher of eloquence in ancient Rome?
(Rhetorician.) Soon after the first Olympiad of antiquity was held in honor of Zeus, for the first time in history, a service of “ellonodiks” was formed, who underwent serious training. What are their modern counterparts called? (Sports judges, or arbitrators. "Ellonodik" in literal translation - "Greek judge".)
This is one of the oldest "professions", but not the oldest. Translated from the Greek, the name of this “profession” is “try”, “test”. No, this is not a test pilot. Some historians include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Fernando Magellan among the representatives of this "profession". Now this “profession” is experiencing a rebirth. Name this widespread "profession." (This is "pirate", from other Greek peiran.)
In ancient Rome there was a profession "argyroscope". What did people in this profession do?
(They checked the coins for a tooth.)
In ancient Rome, there were up to 7 thousand professionals who are in demand to this day. True, then it was their duty to destroy houses if something happened. Now they are doing just that. What? (They flood burning buildings with water and foam. These are firefighters. And in those days, firefighters simply brought down the house to prevent the fire from spreading further.)
Did the Greeks call builders architects or architects?
(Architects.) The tradition of this profession has existed for three centuries. At first, only men owned it, but by the 18th century, women completely replaced men from this profession. From Japanese, her name is translated as "man of art." What is this profession? (A geisha is a professional dancer and singer invited to receive and entertain guests.)
What was the name given to professional spies in medieval Japan who carried out a difficult task covertly?
(Ninja.) In the middle of the 19th century, adding machines became widespread. They were served by specially trained people who could quickly and accurately count using this device. What is the name of such a person's profession? (Calculator.)
And from all that was legs
He went to the Palace to the king.
Tell me, isn't it a shame that in Holy Russia
Thanks to you we don't see books until now?
What profession did A.S. Pushkin in these lines?
The Russian people never sat idle, except that on holidays they allowed themselves to relax a little.
There were professions in Russia that were respected and rare, complex and mysterious. Some have not reached our times, others have received a new birth, and others have completely disappeared. What was the labor market in Russia?
Spitters
Spitters did not make their living by what you might think. They sowed turnips. Why spitters? Yes, because turnip seeds are very small, in one kilogram - more than a million. It is simply impossible to sow them in the usual way. So they came up with spitting seeds. This profession was one of the most honorable in Russia, and good spitters were worth their weight in gold.
Degtekur
In Russia, this profession was quite massive. Degtekurs drove tar from birch bark. Tar was a universal agent used both for lubricating the axles of wheels, locks or boots, and for impregnating sleepers and lubricating the lower rims of wooden log cabins to protect them from moisture and water. But the main thing for which tar was needed was for the production of black (otherwise Russian) yuft, leather of a special dressing with a pleasant resinous smell, which was used to make shoes and harness. Next to the tar miners, tar miners worked - they extracted resin from coniferous trees by distillation.
Coachmen and drivers
The profession was so popular that it left a huge cultural layer in Russian art and literature. It should be distinguished: coachmen are like modern drivers of intercity routes, and cabbies are city taxi drivers. Coachmen transported not only people, but also postal parcels and correspondence, as well as various goods, such as goods for shops. Among the cab drivers there was a classification. So, vanki represented economy class services. Mostly they were visitors from the villages, who sometimes did not have their own transport. They had to rent both a horse and a carriage. Vanki took 30–70 kopecks for the trip. Cargo taxis - lomoviks - worked on heavy horses. Wealthy people took scorchers who were well-fed and beautiful horses plus very comfortable wheelchairs. Reckless people estimated their work at 3 rubles. In addition to private traders, city cab drivers also worked - “darlings”, or “frisky”. They were easily recognizable by their uniforms and license plates. It was possible to order a city cab at a special exchange. Such a trip rarely cost more than a ruble.
Mowing grass has long been perceived in Russia as a common cause. However, the main "strike force" was still mowers - usually very strong and hardy men. If those were not enough, both women and old people went out to mow. By the way, some older people could give odds to young guys. They started mowing at the first dew, which moistened the grass and facilitated the course of the scythe. A certain position of the hands, a wave of the scythe, its direction - there are many subtleties in this work. How well the scythe worked directly depended on what product the cattle in the barn and the person on the table would receive. Usually, during mowing, they sang - together, cheerfully, thereby creating the necessary rhythm of work, because if one of the mowers hesitates, it’s not far from trouble. Haymaking is one of the most popular subjects in Russian art. Easy to mow, you say. Of course, but only if it is not about mowing grass.
Peddlers
Peasants who traded throughout Russia were called peddlers, walkers or ofen. They carried their goods (usually various useful little things) in large lubok boxes, hence the name - peddlers. Their society, their code, their concept of honor, and even their slang, which only people in this profession knew, distinguished peddlers from many other Russian workers. Word formation in the Ofenei language took place different ways: Russian words were distorted beyond recognition, replaced in a sentence by borrowings from other languages, and often simply invented. The attitude of the people to the offen was different. On the one hand, ofeni were often the only sources of news, tellers of tales and gossip, on the other hand, the Russian people were somehow always distrustful of people offering to buy something.
buffoons
The king at court was entertained by a jester, but people in the streets and squares were amused by buffoons. Buffoons were especially fond of working during fairs and various folk festivals. Still would! The people were kind, for a good joke they could give a new hat. The buffoons were jacks of all trades: wits, musicians, singers, and performers of various scenes. Do people want thrills? Here's a bear! Do you want sharpness and agility? The buffoon is ready to tirelessly perform all kinds of acrobatic steps. Each buffoon had his own role: a comedian, a joker, a cracker, a jester. As you know, the authorities did not really favor people of this profession, but it was quite difficult to catch buffoons. They did not stay in one place, wandering from one city to another.
mourners
Without mourners, or wailers, in Russia not a single ritual action was complete, whether it was a wedding or a funeral. Professional crying was trained from childhood, because crying had to have a special melodic warehouse. The more piercingly the mourner moaned, the greater the reward she received in the end. If tears for the deceased in most cases were sincerely shed by relatives, then not all brides, saying goodbye to their parents, managed to truly grieve for their maiden life. So women were invited who were able to shed tears for hours on end, accompanying crying with various kinds of lamentations. Mourners were also present during the send-off of recruits. Weepers were an obligatory attribute, their absence, for example, during a funeral was considered shameful.
There are many lanes in Moscow named after the occupations of the people who lived in them. Leather workers lived in Kozhevnichesky Lane, cap makers lived in Kolpachnoye Lane, and carpenters lived in Plotnikov Lane. Oddly enough, it was not boors, but weavers who lived in Khamovnichesky Lane. And who lived in Vorotnikovsky Lane?
(Guards, or "collars.")
Translators (interpreters) used to live in Tolmachevsky Lane in Moscow, blacksmiths lived on Kuznetsky Most, and cap makers who made hats lived in Kolpachny Lane. And what was produced on Upper Bolvanovskaya Street?
(Ingots for hats. Now this street is called Upper Radishchevskaya.)
In princely times, Kyiv was a real City of Masters. One of the most revered was the profession of those who were called "sorcerers working at the forge." What profession are you talking about?
(Potter - from the word "miner", i.e. "sorcerer working at the forge.")
Carpenters in Russia were unsurpassed builders. Without a single nail, they were able to cut down the church and build a bridge. But from about the 10th century, stone structures began to be erected. Not only walls, but also houses were built of stone and brick. The name of the new profession comes from the building material from which bricks were made - clay. At that time, the word "clay" sounded like "zd", or "zod". What was the name of the new profession and buildings erected by such masters?
(The architect who built the building.)
When in the 12-13 centuries. stokers in Russia went about their usual business, their main food was fish. Why?
(That's why that pirates were then called stokers, from the word "sink" ships.)
What was the standard-bearer called under Peter I?
(Once in Russia they called the banner an ensign. And under Peter I, the standard bearer was called an ensign.)
A representative of what profession in Russia was called a "goldsmith"?
(Jeweler.)
During the time of Catherine II, there was a profession whose people burned gold leaf from their uniforms. It was done this way: clothes were placed on large baking sheets and thrust into the oven. The fabric decayed, and the gold flowed into the prepared buckets. Now the name of this profession, when applied to a person, has acquired an extremely negative connotation. According to Ozhegov's dictionary, this is a rogue, a rogue, a fisted man. What is this profession?
(Burning.)
Why did fabric merchants in Russia prefer to hire short sellers?
(In the old days, fabric was measured in elbows. Elbow is the distance from the elbow joint to the middle finger. For a small seller, the elbow is shorter, you can get more money for a piece of fabric.)
What was the second-hand dealer called: maklak or vahlak?
(Maclac.)
Who was called "ofen" in the old days: merchants or suitors?
(Merchants selling haberdashery, books, popular prints.)
Was the peddler in Russia engaged in trade or the manufacture of boxes from birch bark?
(Trade. Peddlers sold haberdashery goods, small things necessary in peasant life.)
On the way from the Embassy Court to the Kremlin, at one time you could go to the so-called lousy market, where various old things were sold, representatives of a certain profession also sat there. What kind of profession is this, if the German traveler Adom Olearius recalled that he walked around the square, as if on soft upholstery?
(Barber, hairdresser - the whole area was strewn with hair.)
Ancient Russia. A person approaches an oak, pine or linden. He has an ax and a special knife in his hands, and wood-climbing spikes on his feet. What is his profession?
(Bortnik– a person engaged in betting, from the word "bort"–tree hollow. beekeeping–the oldest form of beekeeping, in which bees live in tree cavities.)
In the Middle Ages in Russia, the spinning profession was one of the most common. There were several dozen varieties of spins that made different types of threads for different purposes. The two most basic specialties were called osnovnitsy and podochnitsy. What they were doing?
(They made threads for the warp and weft, respectively. Wefts are transverse fabric threads intertwined with longitudinal ones - the warp.)
According to Dahl's dictionary, since ancient times in Russia they called those who sew clothes, a simple peasant tailor. And later - a trashy little man. How?
(Trash.)
In which Russian city is the only monument in the world to barge haulers, whose hard labor made the Volga region rich?
(In the city of Rybinsk, which at one time received the unofficial status of the "capital of barge haulers".)
For which of the royal entertainments was the Jägermeister previously responsible?
(For the hunt.)
What is an assistant craftsman called?
(Journeyman.)
In Russia, a negligent apprentice craftsman could be locked up with a tool and “put on bread and water” for a whole year. Only a four-legged friend could brighten up his loneliness. The masters that resulted from such training were very skillful. What was said about those of them who, due to hunger, treated their friend in the process of training in a very uncomradely way?
(“I ate the dog in this case.”)
What is the name of the master who makes barrels?
(Cooper, or cooper.)
What name was given to all cheap cab drivers in pre-revolutionary Moscow?
(Vanka.)
A servant in a tavern was called a sexual or dishware?
(Sexual.)
How would our current bartender be called in the Russian state before the 18th century?
(The cupbearer. This is an official who was in charge of wine cellars, poured and brought drinks to the feast.)
Previously, it was a merchant, a trader, mostly foreign. And now - a familiar person whom you accept in your home. Who is it?
(Guest.)
What Russian painter liked to paint merchants, who were famous for their enterprising mind, and merchants - sleek and portly?
(Boris Mikhailovich Kustodiev.)
Previously, in Russia, each person in this profession had his own teacher. The student received the right to independent work only after the death of the teacher. A person of this profession usually lived near his place of work and often, since the salary was small, he combined several more professions - he was both a trapper and a gravedigger. Name this job.
(Ringer.)
Representatives of what ancient profession were threatened by such two misfortunes as deafness and lightning strikes?
(To ringers.)
Guess who our ancestors called the pestun?
(A caring educator. To nurture is to carefully, lovingly grow, educate, and also nurse.)
Translate into modern language the word "protective", which served as the name of one of the professions of our ancestors.
(Bodyguard.)
In the tale of P.P. Ershov "Humpbacked Horse" we read:
A sleeping bag here with a half lope
And from all that was legs
He went to the Palace to the king.
Who is "Sleeper"?
(In the Russian state of the 11th-17th centuries - a courtier, whose duties included helping the Sovereign dress and undress.)
Previously, this word was used to call a maid who did dirty work, but now they call it a messy, dirty one. What's this word?
(Chumichka.)
What word in the old days was a derogatory name for a writer and journalist (it was used in the meaning of "scribbler")?
("Silkpen", from the phrase "to click a pen.")
What was the name of the philosopher in Russia?
(Lubomud, wisdom is philosophy.)
A clown or a clerk used to be called a "clown"?
(Clown.)
Who was called a konoval in Russia in the 18th - 19th centuries?
(A veterinarian who graduated from a special school.)
Was the interpreter or basmach in Russia an interpreter during the conversation and negotiations?
(Tolmach.)
Who is called a hack writer in Dahl's dictionary: an informer or a stenographer?
(A stenographer. Now this is an ironic name for a person who writes quickly, hastily and superficially.)
Previously, this word was used to call the owner of the inn, but today they are called the worker who maintains cleanliness and order in the yard and on the street. What's this word?
(Street cleaner.)
Who in Russia were called representatives?
(Actors.)
A buffoon in the old days is ... Who?
(Magician, acrobat.)
What did the ore gun do in Russia, according to Dahl?
(He bled the sick. Usually this duty fell on the barbers.)
What did the lawyer do in Russia: jurisprudence, military affairs or cooking?
(Jurisprudence.)
A representative of what profession was called a sculptor in the old days? What about architects?
(Sculptor, architect.)
The Moscow Museum of what symbol of Russia became possible thanks to the hard work of fullers?
(Valenka Museum.)
What was the name of the worker who did the laundry?
(Laundress.)
Name the profession of people who, as a rule, were natives of Finland, carried a large spoon with a folding handle and had the right to visit the baths in 19th century Petersburg for free.
(Chimney sweeps. With a spoon with a large folding handle, they scooped up ash from chimneys. In St. Petersburg in the 19th century, 2/3 of the chimney sweeps were Finns. After the revolution, they returned to their homeland.)
In Old Tallinn, they honestly fulfill all their duties. Not forgetting to bring happiness to those who touch them. Who are they?
(Chimney sweeps.)
“Without us, the human race will cease!” - Akulina Gavrilovna defended the honor of this profession in a play about the adventures of Misha Balzaminov. What is this profession?
(Matchmaker.)
Who was called a sworn attorney in 19th century Russia: a lawyer or a prosecutor?
(Lawyer.)
What was the name of the railroad workers in the century before last?
(Travelers.)
Representatives of what ancient profession use ruff, weights and cables as improvised means at work?
(Chimney sweeps.)
This profession is quite dangerous. Indeed, according to available data in Russia, of all those who were engaged in this difficult profession, only 60% survived to retirement (although they did not go on a well-deserved rest). Now we do not have this profession. What is this profession?
(Tsar. Of all the Russian tsars, only 60% died of old age, the rest were helped to die.)
Tell me, isn't it a shame that in Holy Russia
Thanks to you we don't see books until now?
What profession did A.S. Pushkin in these lines?
(To the censor.)
Pickpockets as specialist thieves appeared only in the 17th century, after the appearance of pockets on clothes. Who was the professional forerunner of pickpockets in Russia?
(Scammers. They cut off the wallet – moshnu.)
What would our Minister of Defense in Ancient Athens be called?
(Strategist. He commanded all the troops in Athens. They were Pericles, Themistocles, Alcibiades.)
In ancient Rome - a teacher who taught children the basics of linguistics - grammar. The reading teacher is a writer. A slave who accompanied children to and from school is a teacher. And what was the name of the teacher of arithmetic in ancient Rome?
(Calculator.)
We draw information about the common people of ancient Rome mainly from epitaphs. Many inscriptions about gladiators and various artisans have been preserved. And only one single inscription conveyed to us information about the representative of this profession. His name was Furius Philokal, he lived in Capua, as the epitaph says, "poorly and honestly." Times are changing, but even now most of the representatives of this profession, well known to you, live in poverty and honesty. Name this job.
(School teacher.)
What was the name of a teacher of eloquence in ancient Rome?
(Rhetorician.)
Soon after the first Olympiad of antiquity was held in honor of Zeus, for the first time in history, a service of “ellonodiks” was formed, who underwent serious training. What are their modern counterparts called?
(Sports judges, or arbitrators. "Ellonodik" in literal translation - "Greek judge".)
This is one of the oldest "professions", but not the oldest. Translated from the Greek, the name of this “profession” is “try”, “test”. No, this is not a test pilot. Some historians include Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama and Fernando Magellan among the representatives of this "profession". Now this “profession” is experiencing a rebirth. Name this widespread "profession."
(This is "pirate", from other Greek peiran.)
In ancient Rome there was a profession "argyroscope". What did people in this profession do?
(They checked the coins for a tooth.)
In ancient Rome, there were up to 7 thousand professionals who are in demand to this day. True, then it was their duty to destroy houses if something happened. Now they are doing just that. What?
(They flood burning buildings with water and foam. These are firefighters. And in those days, firefighters simply brought down the house to prevent the fire from spreading further.)
Did the Greeks call builders architects or architects?
(Architects.)
The tradition of this profession has existed for three centuries. At first, only men owned it, but by the 18th century, women completely replaced men from this profession. From Japanese, her name is translated as "man of art." What is this profession?
(A geisha is a professional dancer and singer who is invited to receive and entertain guests.)
What was the name given to professional spies in medieval Japan who carried out a difficult task covertly?
(Ninja.)
In the middle of the 19th century, adding machines became widespread. They were served by specially trained people who could quickly and accurately count using this device. What is the name of such a person's profession?
(Calculator.)
As in feudal Russia 10-18 centuries. called large merchants who conducted intercity and foreign trade?
a) guests;
b) Tourists;
c) Aliens;
d) shuttles.
Who was in charge of beekeeping and honey making in the service of a medieval Russian prince?
a) a sleeping bag;
b) Falconer;
c) a bowl;
d) stable.
What or who was the ringmaster in charge of at the Russian court?
a) royal chambers;
b) the royal kennel;
c) Royal stables;
d) Palace servants.
Who was in charge of all dog hunting in the time of the landowners?
a) the hunter;
b) arriving;
c) Vyzhlyatnik;
d) a wrestler.
From the lexicon of the representatives of what profession did the expression: “Go into all serious trouble” come from?
a) Kuznetsov;
b) ringers;
c) Burlakov;
d) Stolyarov.
(Which meant ringing big, heavy bells. Now this expression means: start doing something, using all the ways, opportunities, or start behaving extremely reprehensible.)
By the greatest command of which Russian monarch in 1871 were women admitted to public service?
a) Peter I ;
b) Ivan IV the Terrible;
c) Alexander II.
G) Nicholas II.
What was the name of the merchants of all sorts of little things who accompanied the troops on long campaigns?
a) marketers;
b) military traders;
c) traveling salesmen;
d) Marauders.
What did the shinkar do?
a)
Shredded cabbage;
b) made wheels;
c) Was engaged in tire repair;
d) Maintained a small drinking establishment.
(Which was called shank.)
For masters-spoons, apprentices prepared wooden chocks for future spoons. The process was called that. How?
a) sharpen laces;
b) Beat the buckets;
c) pull the gimp;
d) Poke your eyes.
Who were called bindyuzhniks in Odessa?
a) Raiders;
b) port loaders;
c) Draft drivers;
d) market dealers.
(Cabbers who transported heavy goods.)
What did the racket master do at the imperial court?
a) Reported petitions to the emperor;
b) Responsible for fireworks;
c) Knocked out royal debts;
d) Arranged games and entertainment.
What was the official name in pre-revolutionary Russia who headed the lowest structural part of the institution?
a) Chairperson;
b) head clerk;
c) portfolio manager;
d) Cabinet chief.
In what institution of pre-revolutionary Russia did the kisser trade?
a) in a tobacco shop;
b) in the bakery;
c) At the hairdresser's;
d) In a pub.
(Seller in a drinking establishment, tavern.)
Who in Russia at the end of the 18th century was called "Arkharovtsy"?
a) policemen;
b) firefighters;
c) Coachmen;
d) a gypsy.
(The nickname of Russian police officers, named after N.P. Arkharov, the Moscow chief of police. In a figurative sense, the Arkharovets is a desperate mischievous, hooligan.)Who were called coachmen in Russia until the end of the 19th century?
a)
diggers;
b) Workers' cemeteries;
c) Road patching workers;
d) Drivers, coachmen on the postal route.
In the 19th century, the Moscow mayor issued a decree in which he fixed the phrase recommended for coachmen to replace scolding in the presence of ladies. We also use this phrase with success. What phrase did he recommend?
a) "Crex, Pex, Fex";
b) "Shirley-myrli";
c) "Yolki-sticks";
d) "Byaki-buki".
What were the class associations of merchants called in Russia before the revolution?
a) Guilds
b) Colleges;
c) partnerships;
d) Clans.
(The privileged guild merchants were divided from 1775 into three guilds according to the amount of capital.)
How were merchants addressed in 19th-century Russia?
a) "Your Reverence";
b) "Your degree";
c) "Your Highness";
d) Your Excellency.
Representatives of what profession in the Middle Ages successfully replaced doctors?
a) blacksmiths;
b) Alchemists;
c) barbers;
d) tailors.
What did the repairers do before?
a) Procurement of edible stocks;
b) Conducting audits;
c) Training of new recruits;
d) Purchase of horses.
(Officer who buys horses.)
A representative of what profession in post-revolutionary Russia was called a "skrab"?
a) polisher;
b) teacher;
c) dishwasher;
d) watchman.
(Shkrab is short for " shk olny slave otnik.")
What did the young lady do while working on the underwood?
a) turn the steering wheel
b) Answered phone calls
c) pounded on the keys;
d) Scolding providers.
(This young lady was a typist, because Underwood is a typewriter.)
What was the name of the leader of the choir in ancient Greek tragedy?
a) Corypheus;
b) Archon;
c) Chorion;
d) Harita.
(And now this is what they call outstanding figures in any field. For example, luminaries of science.)
What was the name of the actor in the old days?
a) a hypocrite;
b) Lyceum student;
c) a lyceum;
d) Revealer.
Who did retouchers help before?
a) fireman
b) Composers;
c) Photographers;
d) hairdressers.
(They could, at the request of the client, improve the photo - correct the oval of the face or paint over wrinkles. Or they could paint the photo with watercolors. Now this work is done by special computer programs.)
Funny questions on the knowledge of proverbs and catchphrases about professions
An Austrian hotel has opened a vacancy for a jester, reports the Associated Press. Candidates for this position must have a good imagination, creativity and ability to play musical instruments. In this regard, we decided to recall the 7 most wonderful Russian professions that can be reborn again.
A real Russian could always prove himself. And, not only in battle and at the feast. Even wearing a woman's skirt, finding a mammoth killed by someone else, counting cats or deceiving bees, he could earn honor and respect.
The etymology of this word is still not known, but historians tend to have a Byzantine origin - from "commarch" - to make funny. From the jesters of the "golden city" our buffoons adopted, first of all, a nomadic way of life, and the repertoire was full of Russian originality. Slaps and accusations rained down on them from all sides - the authorities did not like them for jokes and strong words addressed to them, and the clergy did not call them anything other than demons. Artists wore short-brimmed caftans - this was already considered a sin, they did not shy away from shameful songs and stories, but quite the contrary, they put on masks, frightening impressionable citizens. There was also a separate caste of city jesters - puppeteers. To show the performance, they put on a skirt with a hoop in the hem and lifted it up above their heads, and dressing a man women's clothing and it was completely inappropriate.
Ivan the Terrible loved buffoons. Often he even dressed himself as a jester and took part in the dances. It is no coincidence that the disgraced Archbishop Pimen was dressed up by him in a buffoon suit and sent away on a donkey with a tambourine in his hands.
Tambourines. Who does the tambourine sound like?
Now even Microsoft produces tambourines for especially advanced system administrators. And earlier… In Russia, any instrument in which the sound is extracted with the help of tightly stretched skin was called a tambourine - so some tambourines were not even tambourines at all, but drums. Musicians on this noisy instrument were valued in military affairs. To accompany the troops, huge alarms were made - each carried several horses, and 4 people beat him at once. Therefore, good tambourine makers have always been heard - all of a sudden they will be needed for public affairs. The master had to competently work with both leather and wood. For the rim, birch was best suited - a plank from it had to be soaked for a week before being wrapped in a ring. The skin of an animal, more often than not, of domestic cattle, was processed for a long time. By overdrying or rotting raw materials, the master risked making a far from melodic instrument.
Cat-hound, cat-cat. Who is hitting?
Now the army of "green" teeth would have bitten this person. And earlier people lived more practically. A dog or a cat has become old - why not change it for a small but useful thing in the household? So such a peasant traveled around the villages with impunity, offering all sorts of little things in exchange for Zhuchek and Murok. If you came across villages, entirely consisting of lovers of pets, the cat-hound could also steal a gaping little animal. Cheap kolotkovy (cat) and sentry (dog) fur was used for sewing clothes. There is a well-known proverb that this businessman allegedly repeated while doing the dirty part of his work: “I don’t beat - the owner beats!”.
Bortniki. Proper honey
The fact that "Wh-w-w!" It happens for a reason, people understood a long time ago. Honey has always been both a delicacy and a medicine. Only not everyone was eager to climb into the hollow to the bees. And those who agreed soon emerged as a separate profession. Wild honey hunters had to not only know the forest and notice all sorts of little things, but also climb trees well - the hollows where the swarm settled could be at an impressive height. Well, then someone realized that, in fact, you can slip a piece of log with a hollowed out hole into the bees, and you don’t need to look. This log was called "bort", hence the name of the profession. Having made this first "hive", the master put his brand on it, claiming the contents as his property. Thieves were fiercely hated, a honey thief caught at a strange side risked forever remaining in the forest.
Catal. Get smarter!
These craftsmen were especially valued in the North, where there was simply no life without felt boots. This winter shoe has long been called kataniki. Despite the fact that there are a lot of funny ditties about felt boots, the work of the manufacturer was considered difficult and harmful. I had to work in stuffy and damp conditions. Sheep wool was cleaned of dirt and grass, laid out and "beaten". Previously, they simply beat with a stick, then with a low-hanging string. She was pulled like a bowstring and released. The wool was broken "to smithereens" - hence, by the way, this expression came from. Then the "down and dust" was laid out in the form of the letter "T", swept away and boiled. Now this is called wet felting. There was also a fashion. Some preferred felt boots with a very high narrow top, others - shorter and wider. Only a super-professional could do it exactly “on the leg”.
Bone cutters. Why does a fish need a tooth?
“The fish tooth is expensive, the cutouts are cut out, and only the ant can pass through the cutout.” The necromagic charm of bones did not leave our ancestors indifferent. Cups from enemy skulls were willingly used by the grand dukes - well, before the adoption of Christianity, of course. Then they switched to less provocative material - tubular cow bones, walrus tusks - the notorious fish teeth. And, and if anyone was lucky enough to find the fossil remains of mammoths with huge tusks, then they were used. This task required great patience and remarkable talent. Over time, this craft became small-town - several areas stood out, famous for their products. The caskets of the Kholmogory people were very fond of Catherine I, she also kept two images carved from bone - in gold and silver frames. Masters skillfully adapted to the requirements of the buyer. Under Peter I, they quickly learned how to make fashionable things: miniature playing cards, powder boxes, tiny chess sets, fly boxes, and even carved shoes. Cinderella would die of envy!
Animals. Animals in the court
Hunting has always been one of the main male pastimes. But the leader must not be allowed to whisper: “Akela missed!”, Therefore, it was necessary to poison the beast wisely. These "minds" were called beastmen. They had to choose the right place and time, and then, as if by chance, drive the game right on the right person. Sometimes for this it was necessary to live in the forest for a long time, observing its laws.
However, later this knowledge came in handy in an unexpected way. Russian tsars suddenly began to breed zoos. It’s just that sometimes overseas guests gave various curiosities - lions, leopards, elephants, peacocks. But in our climate, they needed special conditions and care. It was then that they remembered the fur hunters, who could "smell the soul" of the animal. So the amazing creatures were preserved, and the workers lived comfortably, combining the duties of providing hunts and caretakers of the menageries.
Ancient Russia in the medieval world was widely famous for its craftsmen. At first, among the ancient Slavs, the craft was domestic in nature - everyone dressed skins for themselves, tanned leather, weaved linen, sculpted pottery, made weapons and tools. Then the artisans began to engage only in a certain craft, prepared the products of their labor for the entire community, and the rest of its members provided them with food. Agriculture, furs, fish, beast. And already in the period early medieval launched the product to the market. At first it was custom-made, and then the goods began to go on free sale.
Talented and skilled metallurgists, blacksmiths, jewelers, potters, weavers, stone-cutters, shoemakers, tailors, representatives of dozens of other professions lived and worked in Russian cities and large villages. These ordinary people made an invaluable contribution to the creation of the economic power of Russia, its high material and spiritual culture.
The names of the ancient artisans, with few exceptions, are unknown to us. Objects preserved from those distant times speak for them. These are both rare masterpieces and everyday things, in which talent and experience, skill and ingenuity are invested.
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Blacksmiths were the first ancient Russian professional artisans. The blacksmith in epics, legends and fairy tales is the personification of strength and courage, goodness and invincibility. Iron was then smelted from swamp ores. Ore was mined in autumn and spring. It was dried, fired and taken to metal-smelting workshops, where metal was obtained in special furnaces. During excavations of ancient Russian settlements, slags are often found - waste products of the metal-smelting process - and pieces of ferruginous bloom, which, after vigorous forging, became iron masses. The remains of blacksmith workshops were also found, where parts of forges were found. The burials of ancient blacksmiths are known, in which their tools of production - anvils, hammers, tongs, chisels - were placed in their graves.
Old Russian blacksmiths supplied plowmen with coulters, sickles, scythes, and warriors with swords, spears, arrows, battle axes. Everything that was necessary for the economy - knives, needles, chisels, awls, staples, fish hooks, locks, keys and many other tools and household items - were made by talented craftsmen.
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Old Russian blacksmiths achieved special art in the production of weapons. Items found in the burials of Chernaya Mohyla in Chernigov, necropolises in Kyiv and other cities are unique examples of ancient Russian crafts of the 10th century.
A necessary part of the costume and attire of an ancient Russian person, both women and men, were various jewelry and amulets made by jewelers from silver and bronze. That is why clay crucibles, in which silver, copper, and tin were melted, are often found in ancient Russian buildings. Then the molten metal was poured into limestone, clay or stone molds, where the relief of the future decoration was carved. After that, an ornament in the form of dots, cloves, circles was applied to the finished product. Various pendants, belt plaques, bracelets, chains, temporal rings, rings, neck torcs - these are the main types of products of ancient Russian jewelers. For jewelry, jewelers used various techniques - niello, granulation, filigree filigree, embossing, enamel.
The blackening technique was rather complicated. First, a “black” mass was prepared from a mixture of silver, lead, copper, sulfur and other minerals. Then this composition was applied to bracelets, crosses, rings and other jewelry. Most often depicted griffins, lions, birds with human heads, various fantastic animals.
Graining required completely different methods of work: small silver grains, each of which was 5-6 times smaller than a pinhead, were soldered to the smooth surface of the product. What labor and patience, for example, was worth soldering 5,000 such grains to each of the kolts that were found during excavations in Kyiv! Most often, granulation is found on typical Russian jewelry - lunnitsa, which were pendants in the form of a crescent.
If instead of grains of silver, patterns of the finest silver, gold wires or strips were soldered onto the product, then a filigree was obtained. From such threads-wires, sometimes an incredibly intricate pattern was created.
The technique of embossing on thin gold or silver sheets was also used. They were strongly pressed against a bronze matrix with the desired image, and it was transferred to a metal sheet. Embossing performed images of animals on kolts. Usually it is a lion or a leopard with a raised paw and a flower in its mouth. Cloisonne enamel became the pinnacle of ancient Russian jewelry craftsmanship.
The enamel mass was glass with lead and other additives. Enamels were of different colors, but red, blue and green were especially loved in Russia. Enamel jewelry went through a difficult path before becoming the property of a medieval fashionista or a noble person. First, the entire pattern was applied to the future decoration. Then a thin sheet of gold was applied to it. Partitions were cut from gold, which were soldered to the base along the contours of the pattern, and the spaces between them were filled with molten enamel. The result was an amazing set of colors that played and shone under the sun's rays in different colors and shades. The centers for the production of jewelry from cloisonné enamel were Kyiv, Ryazan, Vladimir...
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And in Staraya Ladoga, in the layer of the 8th century, an entire industrial complex was discovered during excavations! The ancient Ladoga residents built a pavement of stones - iron slags, blanks, production wastes, fragments of foundry molds were found on it. Scientists believe that a metal-smelting furnace once stood here. The richest treasure trove of handicraft tools, found here, is apparently associated with this workshop. The hoard contains twenty-six items. These are seven small and large pliers - they were used in jewelry and iron processing. A miniature anvil was used to make jewelry. An ancient locksmith actively used chisels - three of them were found here. Sheets of metal were cut with jewelry scissors. Drills made holes in the tree. Iron objects with holes were used to draw wire in the production of nails and rook rivets. Jewelry hammers, anvils for chasing and embossing ornaments on silver and bronze jewelry were also found. Also found here finished goods an ancient craftsman - a bronze ring with images of a human head and birds, rook rivets, nails, an arrow, knife blades.
Finds at the settlement of Novotroitsky, in Staraya Ladoga and other settlements excavated by archaeologists indicate that already in the 8th century the craft began to become an independent branch of production and was gradually separated from agriculture. This circumstance was of great importance in the process of the formation of classes and the creation of the state.
If for the 8th century we know so far only a few workshops, and in general the craft was of a domestic nature, then in the next, 9th century, their number increases significantly. Masters now produce products not only for themselves, their families, but for the entire community. Long-distance trade relations are gradually strengthening, various products are sold on the market in exchange for silver, furs, agricultural products and other goods.
At the ancient Russian settlements of the 9th-10th centuries, archaeologists have unearthed workshops for the production earthenware, foundry, jewelry, bone carving and others. The improvement of labor tools, the invention of new technology made it possible for individual members of the community to produce alone various things necessary for the household, in such quantities that they could be sold.
The development of agriculture and the separation of crafts from it, the weakening of tribal ties within communities, the growth of property inequality, and then the emergence of private property - the enrichment of some at the expense of others - all this formed a new mode of production - feudal. Together with him, the early feudal state gradually arose in Russia.
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In Russia, iron was known to the early Slavs. The oldest method of metal processing is forging. At first, ancient people beat spongy iron with mallets in a cold state in order to "squeeze the juice out of it", i.e. remove impurities. Then they guessed to heat the metal and give it the desired shape. In the 10th - 11th centuries, thanks to the development of metallurgy and other crafts, the Slavs had a plow and a plow with an iron plowshare. On the territory of ancient Kyiv, archaeologists find sickles, door locks and other things made by blacksmiths, gunsmiths and jewelers.
In the 11th century, metallurgical production was already widespread, both in the city and in the countryside. The Russian principalities were located in the zone of ore deposits, and blacksmiths were almost everywhere provided with raw materials. Small factories with a semi-mechanized blowing process, a mill drive, worked on it. The first chimney was an ordinary hearth in a dwelling. Special bugles appeared later. In order to fire safety they were located at the edge of the settlements. The early kilns were round pits one meter in diameter thickly covered with clay, dug into the ground. Their popular name is "wolf pits". In the 10th century, above-ground stoves appeared, the air was pumped into them with the help of leather bellows.
The furs were inflated by hand. And this work made the cooking process very difficult. Archaeologists still find signs of local metal production on the settlements - waste from the cheese-making process in the form of slag. At the end of the “cooking” of iron, the domnitsa was broken, foreign impurities were removed, and the kritsa was removed from the furnace with a crowbar. The hot cry was captured by pincers and carefully forged. Forging removed slag particles from the surface of the crown and eliminated the porosity of the metal. After forging, the kritsa was again heated and again placed under the hammer. This operation was repeated several times. For a new smelting, the upper part of the house was restored or rebuilt. In later domnitsa, the front part was no longer broken, but disassembled, and the molten metal flowed into clay containers.
But, despite the wide distribution of raw materials, iron smelting was carried out by far not in every settlement. The complexity of the process singled out blacksmiths from the community and made them the first artisans. In ancient times, blacksmiths themselves smelted the metal and then forged it. Necessary accessories for a blacksmith - a forge (smelting furnace) for heating a cracker, a poker, a crowbar (pick), an iron shovel, an anvil, a hammer (sledgehammer), a variety of tongs for extracting red-hot iron from the furnace and working with it - a set of tools necessary for melting and forging works. The hand forging technique remained almost unchanged until the 19th century, but even fewer authentic ancient forges of history are known than domnits, although archaeologists periodically discover many forged iron products in ancient settlements and mounds, and their tools in the burials of blacksmiths: pincers, hammer, anvil, casting accessories .
Written sources have not preserved to us the forging technique and the basic techniques of ancient Russian blacksmiths. But the study of ancient forged products allows historians to say that the ancient Russian blacksmiths knew all the most important techniques: welding, punching holes, torsion, riveting plates, welding steel blades and hardening steel. In each forge, as a rule, two blacksmiths worked - a master and an apprentice. In the XI-XIII centuries. the foundry partly became isolated, and the blacksmiths took up the direct forging of iron products. In Ancient Russia, any metal worker was called a blacksmith: "blacksmith of iron", "blacksmith of copper", "blacksmith of silver".
Simple forged products were made with a chisel. The technology of using an insert and welding a steel blade was also used. The simplest forged products include: knives, hoops and buds for tubs, nails, sickles, braids, chisels, awls, shovels and pans, i.e. items that do not require special techniques. Any blacksmith alone could make them. More complex forged products: chains, door breaks, iron rings from belts and harnesses, bits, lighters, spears - already required welding, which was carried out by experienced blacksmiths with the help of an apprentice.
Masters welded iron, heating it to a temperature of 1500 degrees C, the achievement of which was determined by sparks of white-hot metal. Holes were punched with a chisel in ears for tubs, plowshares for plows, hoes. The puncher made holes in scissors, tongs, keys, boat rivets, on spears (for fastening to the pole), on the shrouds of shovels. The blacksmith could carry out these techniques only with the help of an assistant. After all, he needed to hold a red-hot piece of iron with tongs, which was not easy with the small size of the anvils of that time, to hold and guide the chisel, to hit the chisel with a hammer.
It was difficult to make axes, spears, hammers and locks. The ax was forged using iron inserts and welding strips of metal. Spears were forged from a large triangular piece of iron. The base of the triangle was twisted into a tube, a conical iron insert was inserted into it, and then the spear bushing was welded and a rampage was forged. Iron cauldrons were made from several large plates, the edges of which were riveted with iron rivets. The iron twisting operation was used to create screws from tetrahedral rods. The above range of blacksmith products exhausts all the peasant inventory needed for building a house, agriculture, hunting and defense. Old Russian blacksmiths X-XIII centuries. mastered all the basic techniques of iron processing and determined the technical level of the village forges for centuries.
The basic form of sickle and short-handled scythe were found in the 9th-11th centuries. Old Russian axes have undergone a significant change in the X-XIII centuries. acquired a form close to modern. The saw was not used in rural architecture. Iron nails were widely used for carpentry work. They are almost always found in every burial with a coffin. The nails had a tetrahedral shape with a bent top. By the 9th-10th centuries, patrimonial, rural and urban crafts already existed in Kievan Rus. Russian urban craft entered the 11th century with a rich stock of technical skills. Village and city were still completely separated until that time. Served by artisans, the village lived in a small closed world. The sales area was extremely small: 10-15 kilometers in radius.
The city blacksmiths were more skilled craftsmen than the village blacksmiths. During the excavations of ancient Russian cities, it turned out that almost every city house was the dwelling of an artisan. From the beginning of the existence of the Kievan state, they showed great skill in forging iron and steel of a wide variety of objects - from a heavy plowshare and a helmet with patterned iron lace to thin needles; arrows and chain mail rings riveted with miniature rivets; weapons and household implements from barrows of the 9th-10th centuries. In addition to blacksmithing, they owned metalwork and weapons. All these crafts have some similarities in the ways of working iron and steel. Therefore, quite often artisans engaged in one of these crafts combined it with others. In the cities, the technique of smelting iron was more perfect than in the countryside. City forges, as well as domnitsa, were usually located on the outskirts of the city. The equipment of urban forges differed from the village ones - by greater complexity.
The city anvil made it possible, firstly, to forge things that had a void inside, for example, a tribe, spear bushings, rings, and most importantly, it allowed the use of an assortment of figured linings for forgings of a complex profile. Such linings are widely used in modern blacksmithing when forging curved surfaces. Some forged products, starting from the 9th-10th centuries, bear traces of processing with the help of such linings. In those cases where two-sided processing was required, both the lining and the chisel-stamp of the same profile were obviously used to make the forging symmetrical. Linings and stamps were also used in the manufacture of battle axes.
The assortment of hammers, blacksmith tongs and chisels of urban blacksmiths was more diverse than that of their village counterparts: from small to huge. Starting from the IX-X centuries. Russian craftsmen used files to process iron. Old Russian city forges, metalwork and weapons workshops in the X-XIII centuries. had: forges, furs, simple anvils, anvils with a spur and a notch, inserts into the anvil (of various profiles), sledgehammer hammers, handbrake hammers, billhook hammers (for cutting) or chisels, punch hammers (beards), hand chisels, manual punches, simple tongs, tongs with hooks, small tongs, vise (primitive type), files, circular sharpeners. With the help of this diverse tool, which does not differ from the equipment of modern forges, Russian craftsmen prepared many different things.
Among them are agricultural implements (massive plowshares and coulters, plow knives, scythes, sickles, axes, honey cutters); tools for artisans (knives, adzes, chisels, saws, scrapers, spoons, punches and figured hammers of chasers, knives for planes, calipers for ornamenting bones, scissors, etc.); household items (nails, knives, wrought iron reliquaries, door breaks, staples, rings, buckles, needles, steelyards, weights, boilers, hearth chains, locks and keys, ship rivets, flints, bows and hoops of buckets, etc.); weapons, armor and harness (swords, shields, arrows, sabers, spears, battle axes, helmets, chain mail, bits, spurs, stirrups, whips, horseshoes, crossbows). The original complete isolation of artisans is beginning to be broken.
The production of weapons and military armor was especially developed. Swords and battle axes, quivers with arrows, sabers and knives, chain mail and shields were produced by master gunsmiths. The manufacture of weapons and armor was associated with especially careful metal processing, requiring skillful work techniques. Although the swords that existed in Russia in the 9th-10th centuries are mostly Frankish blades, archaeologists, nevertheless, in their excavations discover the presence of artisans-gunsmiths among Russian townspeople of the 9th-10th centuries. In a number of burials, bundles of forged rings for iron chain mail were found, which are often found in Russian military barrows from the 9th century. The ancient name of chain mail - armor - is often found on the pages of the annals. Making chain mail was labor intensive.
Technological operations included: iron wire forging, welding, joining and riveting of iron rings. Archaeologists discovered the burial of a chain mail master of the 10th century. In the 9th-10th centuries, chain mail became an obligatory accessory of Russian armor. The ancient name of chain mail - armor - is often found on the pages of the annals. True, opinions are expressed about the origin of Russian chain mail about receiving them either from nomads or from the countries of the East. Nevertheless, the Arabs, noting the presence of chain mail among the Slavs, do not mention their import from outside. And the abundance of chain mail in the guard mounds may indicate that chain mail craftsmen worked in Russian cities. The same applies to helmets. Russian historians believe that the Varangian helmets differed too sharply in their conical shape. Russian helmets-shishaks were riveted from iron wedge-shaped strips.
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The well-known helmet of Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, thrown by him on the battlefield of Lipetsk in 1216, belongs to this type of helmet. It is an excellent example of Russian weapons and jewelry of the XII-XIII centuries. The tradition has affected the overall shape of the helmet, but technically it is very different from the helmets of the 9th-10th centuries. Its entire body is forged from one piece, and not riveted from separate plates. This made the helmet significantly lighter and stronger. Even more skill was required from the master gunsmith. An example of jewelry work in the weapons technology of the XII-XIII centuries is, as is believed, the light steel hatchet of Prince Andrei Bogolyubsky. The surface of the metal is covered with notches, and on these notches (in the hot state) sheet silver is stuffed, on top of which an ornament is applied with engraving, gilding and niello. Oval or almond-shaped shields were made of wood with an iron core and iron fittings.
A special place in blacksmithing and weapons business was occupied by steel and hardening of steel products. Even among the village kurgan axes of the 11th-13th centuries, a welded-on steel blade is found. Steel's hardness, flexibility, easy weldability and ability to accept hardening were well known to the Romans. But hardfacing steel has always been considered the most difficult task in all blacksmithing, because. iron and steel have different welding temperatures. Steel hardening, i.e. more or less rapid cooling of a red-hot object in water or in another way is also well known to the ancient blacksmiths of Russia. Urban blacksmithing was distinguished by a variety of techniques, the complexity of the equipment and the many specialties associated with this production. In the XI-XIII centuries, urban craftsmen worked for a wide market, i.e. production is on the rise.
The list of urban artisans includes ironsmiths, domniks, gunsmiths, armor makers, shield makers, helmet makers, arrow makers, locksmiths, and nail makers. In the XII century, the development of the craft continues. In metal, Russian masters embodied a bizarre mixture of Christian and archaic pagan images, combining all this with local Russian motifs and plots. Improvements continue in the craft technique aimed at increasing the mass production. Posad craftsmen imitate the products of court craftsmen. In the XIII century, a number of new craft centers were created with their own characteristics in technology and style.
But we do not observe any decline in the craft from the second half of the 12th century, as it is sometimes asserted, either in Kyiv or in other places. On the contrary, culture grows, covering new areas and inventing new techniques. In the second half of the 12th century and in the 13th century, despite unfavourable conditions feudal fragmentation, Russian craft reached the most complete technical and artistic flourishing. The development of feudal relations and feudal ownership of land in the XII - the first half of the XIII century. caused a change in the form of the political system, which found its expression in feudal fragmentation, i.e. creation of relatively independent states-principalities. During this period, blacksmithing, plumbing and weapons, forging and stamping continued to develop in all principalities. In rich farms, more and more plows with iron shares began to appear. Masters are looking for new ways of working. Novgorod gunsmiths in the 12th - 13th centuries, using new technology, began to produce blades of sabers of much greater strength, hardness and flexibility.
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