Classification of violations of writing and reading. Characteristics of children with speech, writing and reading disorders. Oral speech disorders

The existing classifications of reading disorders can be divided into four categories:

1) Etiopathogenetic , in which the primary violation is distinguished

reading, and secondary forms of reading disorders caused by organic brain pathology, sensory defects, low intelligence, neurotic disorders;

2) Symptomatic classifications, in which the typology of errors is taken as the basis of systematics. At the same time, kinetic (or verbal) dyslexia and static (or literal) dyslexia are distinguished.

3) Psychological classifications, in which the alleged mechanisms of reading impairment are taken as the basis for systematics. In this case, "phonemic" dyslexia and dysgraphia, optical or optical-gnostic dyslexia and dysgraphia, spatial-apraxic, motor, mnestic and semantic are distinguished.

4) Clinical and pathogenetic classification of writing and reading disorders, summarizing many years of clinically oriented psychological psychiatric hospitals in Dolnye Pochernitsy. The author combines all cases of dyslexia, meaning reading and writing disorders, into the following groups:

a) Hereditary;

b) Encephalopathic;

c) Mixed (hereditary-encephalopathic);

d) neurotic;

e) Unspecified.

SPECIFIC WRITING DISGRAPHIES

Based on the analysis of existing studies on this issue and our own observations, we propose the following definition of dysgraphia. Dysgraphia should be called a persistent inability to master the skills of writing according to the rules of graphs (that is, guided by the phonetic principle of writing), despite a sufficient level of intellectual and speech development and no severe visual or hearing impairment. The resulting errors can be divided into several categories.

a) errors in sound-letter symbolization (replacement of letters that are phonemically or graphically similar),

b) errors in graphical modeling of the phonemic structure of a word (omissions, permutations, insertion of letters, assimilation, perseveration),

c) errors in the graphic marking of the syntactic structure of the sentence (lack of dots at the end of the sentence, capital letters - at the beginning, the absence of spaces between words or the creation of inadequate spaces in the middle of words).

Of particular note are errors that repeat verbal paraphrases (the so-called "stammering in writing"). From our point of view, these errors reflect problems of oral rather than writing and only conditionally can be included in dysgraphic.

According to the literature, dysgraphia occurs 2-3 times more often than dyslexia. Reading disorders in most cases are accompanied by writing disorders. However, according to our observations, serious difficulties in reading do not always contribute to dysgraphia. The literature also describes cases of so-called "pure" dyslexia, in which writing skills do not suffer. Thus, although these two groups of syndromes overlap, they do not coincide. There is reason to believe that dysgraphia and dyslexia may have significantly different causes and mechanisms.

Many troubles, difficulties, disappointments, annoyances and problems are brought to parents by speech, reading and writing disorders in their children. What it is? First of all, in such cases, there is a violation of the formation of a word from individual sounds - a violation of the functions of speech and a violation of the ability to understand speech. These are very complex functions, and it is no coincidence that the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes of the brain, in fact, the entire brain, are involved in their implementation. After all, we are talking about the ability to instantly capture and automatically merge together the most complex sounds of speech into a single word, understanding and pronouncing it.

Let's take the floor "balancing". It is pronounced in two or three seconds, and there are fourteen sounds in it, and ten of them are different! And a person instantly catches them all and connects them into one word. The shortest pause - and another word follows. And in the whole phrase there are semantic punctuation marks, and subtext, the finest nuances. A person has perfectly mastered the language of another nation, he speaks it clearly, without errors, but people for whom this language is native instantly pick up a different accent. The ability to speak and understand speech is something ingenious that is given to everyone! And the child is brilliant, assimilating up to five years, assimilating to perfection, the ability to speak and understand speech.

And how difficult the ability to understand speech and speak is, every adult who masters a foreign language knows. He quickly masters the alphabet, gains vocabulary, reads, writes, but he may not comprehend colloquial speech. And everyone knows how painfully you listen to someone else's speech at first. At the same time, there are gifted ones who go through the stage of listening quickly; there are those who listen for years; and there are those who never listen. There is exactly the same children with impaired listening function. It could be alalia when a child may not understand speech at all; it can also be erased forms, when both speech comprehension and vocabulary are depleted. This happens with delays in psychoverbal development, organic brain damage, with childhood autism, and in every case of general underdevelopment of speech. And with all this, you should contact a child psychoneurologist in a timely manner.

But that's not all. The teacher dictates something to the children, and they instantly put what they hear into a written text. And how easy it is for some, and how, Lord, it is hard for others! And for those who find it difficult, dysgraphia. Such a child knows grammatical rules, but ... is terribly illiterate in writing. He doesn't seem to see what he's writing! Here he wrote: "Corva". They ask him: "What did you write?" And he confidently declares: "Cow." They say to him: "Where is the letter" o "?" He peers painfully at what he has written and either does not see the mistake, or embarrassedly corrects it.

A child with dysgraphia often writes in block letters, because he is not given calligraphy - subtle, correct and beautiful writing out letters; he has to write in block letters because his handwriting is terrible. He often does not master the automated, clear, unchanging "bank signature" until the end of his life. Children draw with enthusiasm already in the middle group kindergarten. Children also try to draw, who later, at school, will have dysgraphia, but their hand "does not work." And they eventually give up painting to avoid ridicule. Naturally, they are unable to reproduce geometric figures. The circle they draw looks like a gear wheel. And the time will come when drawing lessons will become their nightmare.

All this, as a rule, is combined with underdevelopment and general fine motor skills. A mother buttons up a dysgraphian child to get him ready for school and laces up his shoes! Such children awkwardly throw the ball and clumsily hit it. They are not athletes, and they suffer from peer ridicule in physical education classes. They can't cut bread without cutting themselves. They cannot spread butter on bread: the butter will be on the fingers, the sleeve, but not on the bread. Children with dysgraphia are dramatically clumsy. Obviously, they cannot be trained to work on the machine, they cannot be watchmakers, television masters, because their fingers, their hands are like sticks. They are "handless". They are elephants in a china shop.

Obviously, children with dysgraphia have organic brain damage, most often due to aggravated childbirth. It is obvious that they have impaired hand-eye coordination, that they have impaired fine motor skills, that they have awkward fingers. And, having caught all this already from the middle group of kindergarten, parents will not only visit a neurologist with such a child in a timely manner, but will tirelessly contribute to the development of fine motor skills of the child. Here, as they say, one should lay down with bones so that the child's fingers become dexterous and their movements are accurate! Practice, practice, practice - and even the bunny will learn to beat the drum...

There are children who for a long time (until the fifth or sixth grade, or even later) experience difficulties in reading, to the extent that they read by syllables in the third or fifth grades or read slowly, difficultly, tensely, often - monotonously, so, how a person who does not speak it reads a difficult text in a foreign language. And this - dyslexia.

Dyslexia, like dysgraphia, if it is difficult to correct, if not completely incurable, can distort the fate of a person. The teacher, of course, requires that the native language be mastered well. There is not a single secondary professional and higher educational institution, where there would be no entrance exam in the native language. And this is fair. You need to know your native language! However, for children with dyslexia or dysgraphia, mother tongue at school tends to be a torment; doing well in other subjects, they often duplicate the third, fifth, and sixth grades due to their inability to master the grammar of their native language to the required extent.

As a result, their development is delayed, they become complex because of the "rain" of twos, they are not allowed into the tenth grade. As for the entrance exam in the native language when entering the institute, we will cite one case from life on this occasion: several dozen technically gifted young men did not get into the Mining Institute in their time, and literate girls took their places. And when the time came for graduates to go to work on geological expeditions, in mines, there was no one to send to these men's jobs ... The girls got married, had children, changed their profession. Potentially gifted boys did not become engineers, geologists, or miners. But Andersen, Bohr, Rodin, Churchill, Edison, Einstein and others suffered from dyslexia, dysgraphia!

And children with dyslexia or dysgraphia should be understood not to injure them, not to "complex". Not to understand such children, not to help them find themselves in this life, in their vocation, in worthy self-affirmation, which is vital for every person, not to encourage them, not to be patient with them - a terrible sin, similar to mockery of a hunchback.

Such children need to seek compensation in what they are usually gifted with. They are often gifted mathematically or musically, they think, see, feel in an original way, they often have brilliant constructive abilities, a talent for deep scientific, economic, political, psychological analysis. And if they remain with certain difficulties in reading and writing, they should not be prevented from finding their destiny, realizing their calling... In any case, teachers should not allow those suffering from dyslexia or dysgraphia to distort the fate of their native language ...

Parents of kids of kindergarten age are worried about how the child says, but mothers and fathers of schoolchildren have other problems. With the beginning of studies, the child may have difficulties with written speech. And very often this does not mean at all that your treasure does not gnaw too hard on the granite of science. Difficulties with learning can be associated with speech disorders.

Written speech

Experts refer to written speech as the process of writing letters, words and text, as well as their reproduction "from a sheet", that is, reading.
The formation of written speech is a conscious process, the result of purposeful learning. Accordingly, some difficulties may arise in children due to the imperfection of the psychological sphere - attention, perseverance, concentration, motivation to study. However, educational measures are far from always the method of overcoming problems. Often, writing disorders have more serious causes that do not depend on the diligence of your schoolchild.

In order for written speech to form correctly, several components are necessary:

1. A developed system of mental factors - memory, thinking, attention, imagination, the ability to self-control, analysis and synthesis.
2. Formed motor skills, fine motor skills.
3. The ability to perceive - visual, phonemic.
4. Correct and well-developed oral speech.

The last point is by no means less significant. It is the level of development of oral speech that is the basis on which a new skill will be built. For this reason, it is extremely important to solve all possible speech therapy problems in a child before starting school.

Written language disorders can manifest themselves in different types depending on the presence of certain problems. Seeing a speech therapist can help you deal with them and help your child succeed in school.

1. Dyslexia

If your child is having difficulty learning to read, they may have dyslexia.

It is characterized by:

• Letters in words are read incorrectly (merging with subsequent / previous ones, “swallowing”, replacements).
• The accents are in the wrong place.
• The word is not read to the end.
• In the process of reading, words are skipped or rearranged, lines are lost, and transition from one line to another is difficult.

As a rule, dyslexia is associated with impaired speech hearing. It is difficult for a child to distinguish sounds that are close in pronunciation. Important factors are also sufficient development of the ability to analyze and synthesize, retain attention and accuracy of perception.

2. Dysgraphia

Constant, not related to knowledge of spelling rules, writing errors are a characteristic feature of dysgraphia. These mistakes are illogical and even unexpected for teachers and parents. "Cow" can turn into "shelter", "April" into "atrel", the letters are turned over, and the words in a separate sentence do not connect with each other.

Edification, traditional activities with a child, and even punishment cannot lead to a result. The thing is that dysgraphia does not arise from the disobedience of the child, but due to the insufficient formation of higher mental functions, violations of various components of speech.

3. Acoustic dysgraphia

It is expressed in the replacement of letters with similar ones in sound, the incorrect designation of the softness of the sound. This process is connected with the inability to connect the sound with the letter and the correct perception and analysis of what was heard.

Moreover, the child pronounces all sounds correctly in the process of speech, he has no problems with articulation.

For example: “letter” - “letter”, “sings” - “fights”.

4. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia

This option manifests itself with existing problems with sound perception and with the pronunciation of sounds. That is, the child "writes what he hears."

• arbitrarily uses voiced consonants and deaf consonants in writing, swapping them;
• alternates whistling and hissing;
• misses the soft sign;
• mixes affricates and their constituents;
• arbitrarily changes the vowels of the first and second series.

The problem cannot be solved until the speech therapist sets the correct articulation of all sounds and masters the skills of phonemic hearing.

For example: “cat” - “koska”, “swing” - “rollers”.

5. Agrammatical dysgraphia

In this case, while writing, the grammatical structure of speech is violated:

• the connection of words in the sentence is broken, the phrases are not coordinated with each other;
• nouns are put in the wrong number, case or gender;
• prefixes and suffixes are replaced;
• the structure of the sentence is changed.

The problem becomes noticeable by grade 3, when grammar becomes necessary condition for study. Parents should be on the lookout.

Example: "Beautiful car", "Katya and Lena are driving a car."

6. Optical dysgraphia

Letters consist of a certain set of elements - hooks, sticks, circles, ovals, etc. If there are problems with visual-spatial perception, the process of analysis and synthesis, schoolchildren may experience typical mistakes:

• letters are written in mirror image;
• extra elements appear at the letters (“porridge” - “kashshsha”);
• the details of the letters "break off" from each other or there is a gap between the written
• letters in one word;
• visually similar letters are replaced (c - d, t - n, and - w).

7. Dysgraphia that occurs when the processes of analysis and synthesis are disturbed

This option is quite common, so parents need to pay attention if the child regularly repeats mistakes of this kind:

• syllables are interchanged and separate or omitted altogether (“doll” - “kulka”, “kuka”, etc .;
• words are not added to the end;
• additional letters appear in words (“machine” - “maashina”);
• prepositions are written together with words, and prefixes, on the contrary, separately;
• in words, individual syllables from neighboring words are mixed up.

Again, the point here is not that the child is not trying hard enough or not doing his homework hard enough. Dysgraphia problems have deeper roots. The child needs the help of a speech therapist.

Correct diagnosis of the condition and timely corrective measures can correct the situation and add positive marks to the diary and motivation to study.

8. Dysorphography

There is another problem with writing. Dysorphography is a persistent inability to put into practice the rules of spelling. A sign of this condition are frequent spelling errors in schoolchildren with a normal level of intellectual abilities. Even having learned the rule by heart, the child cannot put it into practice, so the mistakes are repeated again and again.

Experts believe that the cause of dysorgraphia is insufficiently developed knowledge of word-formation analysis, reduced motivation for learning, belated development of higher mental functions (attention, memory, thinking, ability to analyze and synthesize).

To solve all these problems, you should contact the experts. Tailor-made speech therapy classes will help you cope with impairments, and ultimately your student will be more successful.

In addition, it is important to understand the fact that difficulties in mastering written language are much easier to prevent than to correct. Work must begin at preschool age before learning to write. Well-developed oral speech, timely consultations and classes with a speech therapist will help the child avoid many difficulties while studying at school.

The process of acquiring literacy is most often understood as the assimilation of a certain list of letter images and the ability to link letters into syllables, words into sentences. When reading, it is assumed the ability to perceive ready-made letter combinations, while writing - the ability to compose them independently. Therefore, many teaching methods have in mind, first of all, the study of letters and letter combinations. In using sound as the name of a letter, one often loses sight of the whole peculiarity of the complex range of relationships that are psychologically established between the child's speech and sound images of letters, which the child must master when starting to read and write. This question is usually either not raised at all, or has a very definite solution, which in many cases is directly formulated, in others it is undoubtedly assumed.

The relationship that is established in the mind of the child between the sound of speech and the letter is drawn as an associative link. From this point of view, the psychological side of teaching literacy is to establish this connection, its development and improvement. It is this understanding of this issue that we find, for example, in one of the subtle researchers - Baudouin de Courtenay. “Varieties of one grapheme are united by association with one phoneme,” he writes, characterizing the relationship of a letter to a sound.

A similar idea is developed by V. A. Bogoroditsky, speaking about the association between writing and pronunciation: a new aggregate - written symbols perceived by sight and reproduced by hand; at the same time, there is an associative connection between the one and the other centers.

Ranshburg, exploring reading and writing disorders, also points out that "...recognition of the sound meaning of individual letters requires strong associations between optical representations of the shape of letters, on the one hand, and acoustic representations of the corresponding speech sounds, on the other."

The center of gravity of the pedagogical process is transferred to the assimilation of the letter as such. The letter acts as a completely new special object of study, only as the name of which sound is involved. Thus, for a child beginning to read and write, the object of assimilation is predominantly a letter image. Language plays a subordinate role in this process. If the fallacy of such a position is pointed out in the methods of the mass school (Flerov, Shaposhnikov, followed by Gmurman, etc.), then, as will be seen below, this is all the more true when applied to the analysis of the anomaly in the process of acquiring literacy. A correct understanding of the relationship between sound and letter seems to us to be the main prerequisite, without which the most essential questions of psychology, literacy training, neither in the norm, nor even in pathology, can be resolved.

If the connection between sound and letter is purely associative, then it must be assumed that the acquisition of literacy consists only in the accumulation of such associative connections, and if so, then the acquisition of literacy inevitably appears as a simple mechanical addition of the ability to read and write to the possibilities of oral speech. We have a direct indication of this, for example, in V. A. Bogoroditsky: “The difference between a literate and an illiterate is the presence or absence of a group of associations.”

Meanwhile, one can point to significant considerations of a different order. We have in mind observations that show that literacy not only serves as a means of familiarizing with written culture, but at the same time is a factor influencing the course of the entire language development of the child.

For a more detailed elucidation of this question, we must dwell on some of the laws that govern the development of speech in childhood. At present, it can be considered established that the mechanism for the development of oral speech is not limited to the quantitative accumulation of motor skills in the pronunciation of speech sounds. Analysis of the originality of speech sounds, developed in modern linguistics, points to new ways of psychological study of the process of their assimilation. The sound of speech must have properties that characterize any sound as a physical phenomenon: strength, pitch, timbre, etc. Further, the sound of speech from the physiological side arises as a result of the functioning of the organs of speech (larynx, soft palate, tongue, etc.). However, neither the physical nor the physiological side exhausts the qualitative originality of the sound of speech. The peculiarity of the sound of speech, which distinguishes it from all other sounds, lies in its social quality. The sound of speech becomes only a sound that can serve as a means of conveying the meanings of words. This is its fundamental difference from the sounds made by animals (for example, barking, bleating, etc.), as well as from the sounds produced by the human vocal apparatus, but not participating in speech (a cry, a baby's babble, etc.).

Each language uses many different sounds, but all this variety of sounds is subject to its own system. Each language has a certain number of basic sounds that can be distinguished, despite all the variety of shades of the sound of each of them. In each individual pronunciation of a particular speech sound, there are individual qualities that are determined by specific conditions. On the one hand, these include pitch, timbre, intonation, and other qualities that depend on the properties of the voice; on the other hand, various combinations of a given sound with others (6a, bo, bu, etc.) and, finally, different positions of the sound (stress, unstress, transition of voiced to deaf, etc.). Thus, the features of the voice, the influence of neighboring sounds, a different place in the word, stress affect the nature of the sound, the plurality of its pronunciation.

Language as a system of speech sounds presupposes only the basic sounds, or, as linguists put it, "their general form." There are few such basic sounds in each language, but verbal communication with their help turns out to be quite possible. Here, the semantic-distinctive function performed by the sounds of speech acquires decisive importance. To differentiate the meanings of words, it is not necessary that these words consist of completely different sounds. This goal is achieved even if there is at least one different sound, for example, in the words house - volume, mountain - bark, the replacement of one first sound with another is sufficient to change the meaning of the word. In these examples, the semantic sounds are acoustically very close (d-t, g-k). The language also uses sounds that are acoustically more distant, which serve the same purpose.

Thus, we see that the acoustic difference of sounds is the basis due to which the exceptional flexibility of the meanings that exist in human speech is realized. The sounds that make up word-distinguishing features and taken regardless of individual shades are called phonemes.

Mastering the language, the child in all the variety of sounds reaching him speech should be able to hear the basic sounds of this language. As in any other area of ​​perception, the child must capture some basic constant quality of the perceived object, regardless of its secondary non-permanent properties. In the speech sphere, this process is carried out with the help of higher cortical sections of acoustic perception, which constitute the originality of the human psyche, in contrast to the elementary hearing that animals have.

It is clear that the assimilation of the phonetic side of speech, first of all, involves the assimilation of phonemes. Naturally, the selection of phonemes is not only not isolated from the semantic content of speech, but presupposes the latter as the other side of a single process.

The semantic role of the phoneme clearly indicates this. In order to catch the phoneme t, the child must catch its distinct sound from other phonemes, with the help of which words express different meanings. He must perceive m (frame) in contrast to n (wound), in contrast to d (rada), etc. This is one side that allows you to capture the phoneme as an indicator of various words, but along with this, the phoneme m must be distinguished and relation to it as such among its various sounds. This also takes place in close connection with the general development of meanings expressed in words. Catching the words frame, frame, frame, etc. as words referring to the same phenomenon, the child in different shades of m, arising due to the acoustic influence of the neighboring sound (ma, mu, mo, etc.), catches constant sound.

Following the isolation of a phoneme, its pronunciation arises. It is hardly correct to think that the assimilation of pronunciation is entirely subordinated to the possibilities of the child's speech motor skills and arises as a mechanical stringing of sounds according to the degree of accessibility of their pronunciation apparatus. The act of pronouncing a sound in a norm should be considered rather as the completion of an acoustic process aimed at isolating the corresponding sound, distinguishing it from other sounds. The acoustic image of a phoneme arises as a generalized one from various "options" that are realized in the motor formula for the pronunciation of a speech sound. Thus, pronunciation is closely dependent on the acoustic generalization of sound.

In real development, pronunciation does not occur immediately, not in a sharp jump. It is formed gradually, in a single mutually corrective process, with the refinement of the acoustic image, and is its necessary component. In the absence of pronunciation, the perception of speech is also difficult. This is evidenced by cases of rhinolalia, pseudobulbar paralysis and other disorders of the speech and motor apparatus. However, disturbances of the speech system as such suffer immeasurably less here than when the brain zones associated with the higher functions of acoustic perception suffer. In these latter cases, the mastery of speech as a system suffers heavily, in spite of a full-fledged articulatory apparatus.

As you know, the formation of the sound side of speech occurs during the first 4-5 years of a child's life. During this period, the child's articulatory apparatus adapts precisely to those sound phonemic relations that he finds in the surrounding language. First of all, a distinction is established between phonemes that are the lightest in sound, gradually spreading to acoustically closer sounds. Gradually, the child masters phonemes that differ little from each other in their acoustic properties (voiced - deaf, hissing, whistling, R and l etc.). The path of phonetic development of speech is completed only when all the phonemes of a given language are learned.

Phonemes that differ only in subtle features are especially difficult to master, which naturally places these phonemes in the most difficult conditions for distinguishing.

Gradually, the child learns to recognize (differentiate among others) identical phonemes, regardless of the conditions that change the sound of these phonemes in different cases.

The result of the process of isolating phonemes is, on the one hand, the gradual formation of oral speech, on the other hand, the accumulation of a stock of auditory phonemic images, which constitute the content of linguistic consciousness. These auditory images are not single, but generalized.

Often they talk about the "articulatory base" inherent in every speaker of a given language. By it they mean the totality of articulatory tendencies characteristic of a given language. In the development of this concept of articulation schemes typical for each language, one should speak of a linguistic concept as a concept that encompasses the entire system of typical speech images that accumulate in everyone in accordance with the language in which he is brought up. Thanks to this, a person learns to perceive sound not in its exact physical sound, but in its relation to the entire linguistic background. The best illustration of this is the perception of a foreign language by a foreigner. The pronunciation errors that make up the “accent” of a foreigner are largely due to the discrepancy between the phonemes of different languages. He perceives the sounds of another language as if through the prism of the phonemic system of his language, without immediately capturing the peculiarities of unfamiliar phonemes. The linguistic consciousness, formed in the conditions of one language, is alien to the sounds of another language, and they are therefore perceived in accordance with the sound images that are familiar to it.

We confine ourselves in our brief consideration to single sounds only. Meanwhile, what has been said can be extended to the perception of words, phrases, the assimilation of the entire grammatical structure of the language. The formation of the latter constitutes the other side of the process of speech assimilation described above. The agrammatic nature of the speech of a small child reveals the way of "groping" for the correct grammatical forms. Sound analysis plays an important role here, especially when mastering semantic grammatical categories. Of particular importance is the ability to catch one phoneme in different morphological changes in words that are created under the conditions of the so-called sound alternation.

So, we see that the mastery of sound speech occurs on the basis of the acoustic distinction of phonemes and the establishment of those phonemic relations that exist in a given language. The perception of these relations turns out to be necessary for the emergence of an appropriate sound background and, consequently, for the formation of active speech.

It should be said about a child who has emerged from the period of "physiological tongue-tiedness" that the development of his linguistic consciousness has completed a certain complete cycle, which turns out to be sufficient for oral speech. The completion of this period is characterized by the ability to catch each individual phoneme, without mixing it with others, and to master its pronunciation.

The generalized perception of a phoneme presupposes its constancy regardless of the individual characteristics of the sound, from close-sounding phonemes, from combination, from transition to another combination due to changes in morphological conditions. The reverse side of this process is the accumulation in the linguistic consciousness of the corresponding generalized acoustic-motor images.

The child is correct. However, are the possibilities for further linguistic development exhausted by this? The answer to this question brings us directly to the questions posed above about the transition to literacy.

All language processes that take place before learning to read and write proceed in terms of the manifestation of early forms of orientation in all spheres of the reality surrounding the child. At this stage, the child already speaks correctly, but he still does not know what sounds the word consists of, despite the fact that he pronounces it correctly. Sound analysis, a clear idea of ​​the sound composition of a word, becomes necessary in the transition to literacy. Learning letters, the child learns the graphic designation of those phonemes that he mastered in the formation of oral speech. It seems to repeat the passed stage, but on a different, higher level.

As you know, the number of letters of the alphabet does not correspond to the number of sounds of the Russian language. Not every single sound is expressed in a letter. Only the basic sounds are expressed in it.” That is why we say that, in a certain sense, the phonemic process is completed in the letter. For example, a letter m is a designation of a generalized (separated from variants) sound t or phoneme m.

In all cases where the assimilation of a letter signifies another psychological act, it appears in the child's mind as a pattern that bears the name of the sound corresponding to the designation of this letter. In these cases, the path of learning to read and write conflicts with the true essence of this process, and the letter in its true role as a graphic sign of a generalized sound appears much later (which often leads to incorrect spelling). That is why a more precise designation obliges us to distinguish between the concept of a letter or graphic image and the specific linguistic concept of a letter as a designation of a generalized sound. Using the name proposed by Baudouin de Courtenay, we will distinguish the concept of a grapheme from the concept of a letter. It is clear from the foregoing presentation that the grapheme can only be considered in direct connection with the phoneme. In accordance with its phoneme, the grapheme turns out to be one, regardless of what letter, what font it will be depicted in each specific case. Thus, the relation of a grapheme to a letter is similar to the relation that exists between a phoneme and a sound.

The transition from oral speech to literacy is, first of all, the transition from phoneme to grapheme. Literacy requires a certain level of phonemic development. The latter may not be necessary for mastering the letter.

In the process of teaching literacy, a transition is made from one form of linguistic consciousness, which can be characterized primarily from the side of phonemic content, to new form, characterized by the appearance of acoustic-visual representations of graphemes.

For most of the sounds of the Russian language, there are no corresponding letters, but we can talk about the correspondence of graphemes to the phonemes of this language.

In a number of cases, we see sharp discrepancies between the sound and the letter representing this sound. From the point of view of the relation of the phoneme to the grapheme, on the contrary, we have, in the majority, a certain correspondence. Such a situation, for example, is displayed in voiced before deaf or at the end of a word, when they can be replaced by deaf. In the words oak, sponge, we pronounce p, and write b, which corresponds completely to the main sound of the phoneme (oak, sponge); in the words krov, shop, we pronounce f, but the grapheme in this case corresponds much more to the phoneme contained here (krov, shop). In the words pond, boat is pronounced t, meanwhile, against the background of the forms of the pond, the boat becomes an undoubted grapheme d; the same in the examples knife - knife in relation to the grapheme w and the sound sh.

We find similar examples in cases where a voiceless consonant is combined with a subsequent voiced one. For example, in the word request with sounds like z. However, the correct grapheme is easily found against the background of the word ask.

We could multiply examples establishing the relation of orthoepy to orthography, or sound to grapheme. However, as examples illustrating our main idea, we consider it possible to confine ourselves to those given.

So, we see that the acquisition of literacy follows the path of assimilation of the graphemes of a given language. Not a letter as a picture that bears the name of the corresponding sound, but a grapheme - a graphic designation of a phoneme - is a unit of reading and writing.

The concept of "grapheme" is closely connected with the concept of "phoneme" and does not lose its content. To master a grapheme, the presence of a phoneme is necessary.

However, the grapheme, assuming the development of all those processes that are necessary for the formation of the phoneme, and translating them into the plane of conscious analysis, is not limited to them. It, as it were, finally completes those sound processes that characterized oral speech until that time.

Thus, the transition from speaking to reading and writing represents a transition to new forms of language development.

When analyzing pathological deviations in reading and writing, we will be guided by the above considerations about the nature of literacy acquisition. We consider literacy as a stage in the general system of language development, which implies the readiness of phonemic development, on which it relies and which finally completes (within the given language). This obliges us to make important conclusions about the research method. If the new language content in filmed form assumes the path of isolating phonemes that the child has taken in terms of mastering oral speech, then it is wrong to consider reading and writing disorders without regard to the study of the state and path of development of sound speech in these cases.

A direct study of the manifestation of alexical and agraphic disorders in their direct symptoms often leads away from understanding their essence, and does not bring them closer.

The act of slow, incorrect reading and writing is usually studied, beyond comparison with common processes speech. We believe that in these cases it is necessary to involve an analysis of the general course of language development, and above all an analysis of oral speech and the processes of sound analysis.

We are also convinced of the solidity of this approach by the fact that shortcomings in reading and writing, as a rule, are accompanied by deviations in the development of oral speech.

The ability to write and the process of writing a text itself is a complex, inherently psychological process that psychologists put on a par with such a person’s ability as speech and perception of information, in its spontaneous and systemic form, as well as human motor abilities.

Under the medical term - agraphia, doctors mean a disorder in the very process of writing, due to, but all movements of the arm and hand are preserved. Intelligence, mental abilities are also fully preserved, as well as already acquired writing skills.

The disease itself arises and develops as a result of a lesion in a patient of the left side of the cerebral cortex in right-handers or the right hemisphere in left-handers.

Types of disorder - their features

There are the following types of graphics:

1. Pure or amnestic- in this case, the patient has a failure in writing when the text is written from dictation or it is written from a sound original, and when copying, the ability to write is more or less preserved. Often in its course it is combined with, acting as its vivid symptom, and in the severe form of its course, it manifests itself in the mirror spelling of words. In the latter case, a mirror subspecies of pure agraphia develops.
2. Apraxic form of pathology- manifests itself as an independent disease or may be a manifestation of an ideational one. The child is simply unable to understand how to hold the pen, and subsequent movements do not contribute to the correct spelling of letters and words, their sequence. This form of the disorder is diagnosed with any type of writing, both under oral dictation, and with self-copying of the text.
3. Aphatic form of violation is formed when the left temporal cortex in the structure of the brain is affected, which causes problems with auditory and speech memory, as well as a phonemic variety of hearing.
4. Constructive form of disorder- develops with a constructive variety of pathological changes in the brain.

What parts of the brain are affected

With damage to the left temporal cortex in the brain, an aphasic form of pathology develops, which provokes a violation in the auditory-speech type of memory and damage to the phonemic type of hearing.

If disorders are diagnosed in the work of the posterior sections of the 2nd frontal gyrus, located in the patient's dominant hemisphere, then doctors diagnose a pure form of agraphia that is not associated with other pathologies and diseases.

If the patient writes in a mirror order, a mirror subspecies of the disorder develops, and this form of pathology is most often diagnosed in left-handed people, in intellectually retarded patients, in case of a failure in the process of interaction between the hemispheres of the brain.

Dysgraphia is a special case of agraphia

Symptoms of the pathology may vary - it depends on the root cause of the development of the disease. Children diagnosed with dysgraphia are smart, with a high level of intelligence, they can keep up with other school subjects, but they make a lot of mistakes in their notebooks, confusing the spelling of such letters as P and Z, E and b.

Where to look for the reason?

Doctors call the main reason that provokes the development of agraphia.

This disorder can also be caused the following factors:

• or development or ;
• negative effect on the body and brain of toxins;
• inflammatory processes provoked.

Often the cause of the development of this pathology is a birth trauma - at a younger age, the child cannot speak, does not learn to write, at an older age, a failure in written speech in its course is combined with an inability to express one's thoughts through oral speech.

Also, a failure in the ability to write can also be a sign of the development of another pathology, the course of an underlying disease, for example, during development - this violation indicates the development of a lesion on the verge of the temporal and parietal lobes of the brain. In children or adults, the phonemic perception of information and its interpretation into graphic symbols are disturbed.

As medical statistics show, more often children suffer from agraphia, who have underdevelopment of oral speech, the development of language, vocabulary has not reached their age level of development.

Complete the clinical picture

The most striking manifestation of the disease is a complete and irreversible loss of the ability to write. There is a strong disturbance in the structure of the word itself, letters are omitted, the patient is unable to connect syllables, but the intellect remains intact, and previously developed writing skills are not impaired.

A child or an adult cannot write a text from dictation or simply rewrite it from the original, the mirror placement of letters, words and whole sentences manifests itself.

Establishing diagnosis

The process of diagnosing the violation itself is not difficult. At the very beginning, the doctor conducts a detailed examination of the patient, conducts, studies an example of the patient's text. In practice, it is more difficult to diagnose the root cause that leads to the development of this disease.

At the beginning, the brain is examined and the lesion is identified and, as a result, the cause of the disorder. To do this, the doctor conducts a survey of the patient and parents, if it is a child, then additional methods of neurological examination are used - or, an x-ray examination of the skull.

Doctors also use in the process of diagnosing,.

Treatment and correction

First of all, the patient is registered with a neurologist, a course of medication is prescribed, and writing skills are re-trained according to a specially designed program.

In it, first of all, the goal is to overcome inertia in the links responsible for the structure of the syllable, the choice of words and the restoration of all language functions, speech - both its written form and oral. With an adult and a child, specialists conduct both individual and collective classes, only in this way a positive effect is achieved.

The patient is under the control of a psychiatrist and a speech therapist, where he takes a course of psychiatry and speech therapy lessons. As an example, rhythmic exercises that will help restore the work of the cerebral cortex.

Exercise therapy also has a positive effect on the level of mental development of the patient, since the relationship between movement, physical and motor activity and mental training of one or another affected part of the brain has been scientifically proven.

Music and singing help develop the motor skills of the vocal cords, muscles and ligaments of the larynx. Playing musical instruments helps develop finger motor skills, which also has a beneficial effect on the work of the cerebral hemispheres.

Treatment practices a course of treatment with a speech therapist - logo-rhythm and musical exercises have the most positive result in the treatment of agraphia.

The main thing when the first problems with writing appear is not to start the disease, but you need to contact a specialist. Among which are a speech therapist or a neurologist, a psychotherapist. You should never take risks and you need to contact the doctors in a timely manner. Only in this way can the pathology be eliminated in a timely manner.