How much oil is transported by an oil tanker. Offshore giants of the oil and gas industry. Dimensions tanker Knock Nevis

14.09.2020

Marine site Russia no November 17, 2016 Created: November 17, 2016 Updated: November 17, 2016 Views: 39721

On a tanker, all cargo operations are carried out by the cargo system, which consists of pumps and pipelines laid along the upper deck and in cargo tanks. The cargo device of a tanker is a whole complex of special devices and systems.

It includes:

1) pipelines;

2) cargo pumps;

3) stripping system;

4) cargo heating system;

5) crude oil tank washing system;

6) inert gas system and gas exhaust system.

Pipelines

For loading and unloading liquid cargo on oil tankers, a special cargo system is installed, consisting of receiving and unloading lines.

Inlet (suction) pipeline is laid in cargo tanks. Each cargo pump has a separate main pipeline, from which receiving branches go to a certain group of tanks, locked with valves or clinkets. Such wiring of the suction pipeline allows you to independently receive and pump out several different grades of oil products.

Unloading (pressure) pipeline begins at the cargo pumps with vertical pipes going to the upper deck. Further, the main line is laid along the deck and from it to the sides there are branches, to which, during loading and unloading, flexible hoses supplied from the shore or a terminal stander are connected.

Deck main pipelines are connected by vertical pipes (risers) with main pipelines laid in tanks.

On the bottom of the cargo tank there are cargo and stripping pipelines. On combined OBO ships, pipelines run under the bottom in double bottom tunnels.

Installed on tankers various systems cargo lines, however, three main systems should be noted: ring, linear and bulkhead-clinket.

ring system- this system is used on small tankers with two longitudinal bulkheads and two pump rooms - forward and central. Two pump rooms divide the cargo tanks into 3 independent groups with independent deck pipelines, which allow loading three types of cargo without the risk of mixing.

Pump rooms are usually located in the middle part of the tanker. As a rule, piston pumps are used. The disadvantage of the system is a lot of jumpers and the difficulty in cleaning tanks located aft of the pump room, when the tanker is trimmed to the stern.

1 - deck receivers; 2 - kingstones; 3 – cargo pumps; 4 - tank receivers

Linear system- applied using centrifugal pumps located in the pump room at the stern of the tanker, behind all cargo tanks.
There can be two, three, four cargo lines, depending on the size and design of the tanker. Each of them has an independent cargo pump and a group of tanks closes. Lines and groups of tanks closed on them can communicate and be separated by valves, of which there must be at least two. This ensures the transportation of various types of cargo placed in different groups tanks.

Bulkhead-clinket- the system differs from the two previous ones in that pipelines are not laid in cargo tanks. Holes are cut in the bulkheads at the bottom, closed with special valves.
During loading and unloading, the cargo flows through these openings from the tanks to the tank, where cargo and stripping pipelines are installed, close to the pump room. This system is also called the free flow system (FREE FLOW).

The advantage of the system is a small number of installed pipelines, which reduces the cost of building a tanker. The disadvantage is the limitations of the possibilities when transporting several types of cargo at the same time. At all stages of transshipment operations, it is necessary to control the movement of cargo through ship pipelines.

This control is carried out with the help of gate valves or valves. The most widespread on tankers are butterfly valves, with a vertical or horizontal axis of rotation of the plate.

Pipelines and valves are subjected to a hydraulic tightness test with water pressure equal to one and a half working pressure, it is lifted slowly by a cargo pump. The absence of leakage indicates the tightness of pipelines and valves.

Cargo valves are usually controlled remotely using widely used hydraulic systems.

Cargo pumps

For unloading, the tanker has 3 - 4 cargo pumps. They are located in the lower part of the pump (pump) compartment, the compartment itself is located between the engine room and cargo tanks.

Centrifugal-type cargo pumps are widely used on tankers, which have a number of advantages - simple design, low weight and dimensions, high productivity. Piston pumps are used as stripping pumps on the vast majority of tankers. The pumps supplying crude oil to the cargo tank washers shall be cargo pumps or pumps specially provided for that purpose.

Oil tankers carrying viscous oil products have a cargo heating system. Oil products are heated to reduce viscosity, which facilitates their flow. The heating system has the form of coils made of steel pipes through which steam is passed. The coils are laid along the entire bottom of the tank at a height of about 10 cm from it.

Sometimes the system consists of separate sections installed in different parts of the tanks. Valves for controlling the cargo heating system are usually located on the deck.

In the process of heating the cargo, the tightness of the coils is controlled through the drain cock. If clean water comes out of the faucet, and then steam, the coil is working. If condensate contaminated with oil comes out of the faucet, this is a signal of a system malfunction. In winter, the system must be drained of condensate after use.

Crude oil tank washing system

Crude oil tank washing system consists of tanks for washing solution, collection and storage of oil products, deck pipelines for supplying washing solution to washing machines, pump, heater, portable equipment.

Washing of all or part of the tanks is necessary before changing the cargo, before docking the tanker, for repairs. Also, tanks are washed under clean ballast, with which the vessel arrives at the port of loading and which can be drained overboard in port waters.

Tanks are washed with special washing machines with rotating nozzles. Machines for washing tanks with crude oil shall be stationary and of a design approved by the Register.

The inclusion of each machine must be carried out using a shut-off valve. The number and location of washers should ensure effective washing of all horizontal and vertical surfaces of tanks.

There are two types of washing machines:

non-programmable with two nozzles;

programmable with one nozzle.

Machines with two nozzles are not programmed and always complete a full cycle of work in a certain time. Tank washing machines are powered by oil from cargo pumps that act on a paddle wheel, so proper line pressure must be maintained for efficient cleaning. For stripping, it is preferable to use an ejector.

Programmable machines with one nozzle can be set to wash certain areas of the tank in 4 cycles and allow you to change the angle of rise or fall of the nozzle with a resolution of 1.2, 3 and 8.50.

Portable washing machines can also be used to wash tanks.

To connect portable washing machines to the washing line, special rubber hoses are used. The cars are lowered into the tank through special washing hatches located in the upper part of the tank. These machines can be installed at different tank heights and are very effective at the final stage of tank cleaning.

Washing of tanks is carried out in a closed cycle (Fig. 11.9), i.e., washing water is collected in one or two settling tanks (Slop Tanks). The duration of cleaning, as well as the need to use hot water and chemicals, is determined according to the Tank Cleaning Guide.

Washing with crude oil is only permitted if the inert gas plant is in good working order. No tank may be crude oil washed without being filled with an inert gas with an oxygen content of not more than 8% by volume.

Waste wash water after separation from the water in one of the Slop Tanks can be removed overboard using the Oil Discharging Monitoring (ODM) system.

After washing tanks with crude oil, it is necessary to flush the entire washing pipeline with sea water into a sump tank, then bring the oxygen content to 21% by ventilation, reduce explosive and toxic substances / gases to the required concentration levels. Then select the residues, while monitoring the content of O2, RH, explosives with constant ventilation.

Intermediate state of a cargo tank during washing in an inerted environment (soot from inert gases on the bulkhead)

If the terms of the contract require, then after the washing of the tanks with sea water is completed, they are rinsed fresh water for 10 - 15 minutes, then inert.

Cleaning of cargo tanks is understood as the process of removing oil residues from the bottom, walls and a layer of oil residues after the main cargo has been drained. After unloading oil products, about 1% of the cargo remains in the tanks, which depends on the cargo and stripping systems, the presence of heating, the design of the ship, etc.

There are three ways to clean the surfaces of cargo tanks of oil tankers: manual, mechanized and chemical-mechanized. This division is arbitrary, since each of these methods uses manual labor to one degree or another.

The manual method is a low productivity method that requires a lot of time and money. The procedure for stripping cargo tanks is as follows. After pumping with cold sea water, each tank is subjected to steam steaming for several hours. When the temperature in the tanks drops to 30 - 40 ° C, they are ventilated and two washers are sent, who roll up all the surfaces of the tanks from hoses with hot water (30-45 ° C). Washers should be fully dressed in protective clothing and use hose or self-contained breathing apparatus.

mechanized way is carried out with water, which is supplied to the tanks under pressure through special washing machines. Washing is carried out mainly with sea water different temperature or detergent solutions.

Chemical-mechanized method- this is the cleaning of tanks with the same means as with the mechanical method, but instead of water, various detergents are used.

The stripping system includes positive displacement pumps, centrifugal self-priming pumps or ejectors; shall be equipped with valves to enable the shutdown of any tanks not subject to stripping.

The stripping pipeline is laid along the bottom of the cargo tank. The capacity of the stripping system should be 1.25 times greater than the flow of all washing machines operating simultaneously at any stage of washing.

Cleaning system console on a tanker

The stripping system must be equipped with control devices: meters, pressure gauges, which must have means of remote display of controlled parameters in the cargo operations control post (PUGO).

To effectively control the operation of the stripping system, level indicators and means of manually measuring the level in the tanks should be provided.

To drain any cargo pumps and pipelines to shore reception facilities, a special pipeline of small diameter should be provided, connected to the drain side of the valves of the intake and discharge pipes on both sides.

Gas exhaust system

If, during ballast acceptance, loading, or internal movements of ballast or cargo, the internal pressure rises above the control level, the tank may burst. If the internal pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, the tank may collapse inwards, with equally disastrous consequences.

Intensive evaporation of oil products, especially light grades, changes in cargo volumes with sharp fluctuations in air and water temperatures necessitate the equipment of cargo tanks with gas exhaust systems. There are two types of gas exhaust systems: separately for each cargo tank and for servicing a group of tanks. Separate venting devices shall rise above the cargo deck by at least 2.5 m.

The group gas exhaust system is supplied with a common line, to which pipes from each cargo tank fit, venting gases from the upper points of the compartment. The common line ends with a vertical pipe laid along the masts or columns that discharge oil vapors into the atmosphere.

Gas pipes are made in such a way that water and oil cannot stagnate in them. In the lowest sections of the pipe, drain cocks should be provided, and the upper holes should be closed with protective caps to protect against atmospheric precipitation. Pipes from each cargo tank shall be provided with fire-protective structures. Their purpose is to prevent the flame from a burning tank from entering the neighboring ones.

The gas exhaust system is supplied with breathing valves (pressure/vacuum) operating in automatic mode. The purpose of these valves is to maintain a certain pressure in the tank. Prior to loading, the breather valves of the venting system (pressure/vacuum) must be opened. At the end of cargo operations, the breathing valves are set to automatic mode. To prevent the ingress of oil vapors into the ship's spaces, it is necessary to close the portholes and doors leading to these spaces before loading. Switch the air conditioning system to closed cycle operation.

Inert Gas Systems (IGS)

Cargo tanks are filled with inert gas in order to prevent an explosion or fire in the cargo tanks.
This is explained by the fact that the inert gas has a low oxygen content. CIG produces an inert gas with an oxygen content typically not exceeding 5% of the total volume.

Sources of inert gas on tankers can be:

flue gas from the main or auxiliary ship's boilers;

autonomous inert gas generator;

gas turbine equipped with a fuel afterburner.

Any source of inert gas must be cooled and flushed with water to remove soot and sulfuric acid before being supplied to cargo spaces.

Components of the system:

1. Gas scrubber (SCRUBBER) is designed to cool the flue gas coming from the boiler, remove sulfur dioxide almost completely and separate soot particles (all three processes take place with a large use of sea water).

2. Inert gas blowers are used to supply purified inert gas to cargo tanks. The inert gas is loaded into the ship's tanks in two ways using:

branch pipes of the main inert system for each tank;

connection of the inert system to the cargo lines.

Cargo tanks should be inerted when they contain a cargo of oil, dirty ballast, or when they are empty after unloading but not degassed. The oxygen content in the tank atmosphere should not exceed 8% by volume with a positive gas pressure of at least 100 mm of water column. If the vessel has been degassed, the tanks must be inerted before loading. In the process of washing with crude oil, inertization of tanks is mandatory.

Changing the atmosphere of the tank

If the gas-air mixture from a tank could be displaced by an equivalent volume of inert gas, then the atmosphere of that tank would result in the same oxygen content as the incoming inert gas. This is practically impossible, and a volume of inert gas equal to several tank volumes is introduced into the tank before the desired result is achieved. The atmosphere in the tank is replaced with an inert gas by inerting or by blowing. In both cases, one of two processes, dilution or substitution, will predominate.

Dilution. Incoming inert gas is mixed with the original atmosphere of the tank to obtain some kind of homogeneous gas mixture in the entire volume of the tank. When starting the SIG, the supplied inert gas must have high speed sufficient to reach the bottom of the tank. To do this, it is necessary to limit the number of tanks that can be inerted at the same time

Substitution (displacement). This is when the hydrocarbon gas, being heavier than the inert gas, is squeezed out through a pipeline leading to the bottom of the tank. When using this method, the inert gas must have a very low flow rate. This method allows multiple tanks to be inerted or purged at the same time.

Cargo tank atmosphere control

The states of the atmosphere of cargo tanks are subdivided as follows:

depleted - this is an atmosphere, the ignition of which is excluded due to the deliberate reduction of hydrocarbon gas to a value below the lower flammable limit (LEL);

with an unspecified gas composition is an atmosphere whose gas content may be below or above the flammable limit, or in this range;

supersaturated is an atmosphere whose gas content exceeds the established ignition limit;

inertized - this is an atmosphere, the ignition of which is excluded due to the introduction of an inert gas into it, followed by a decrease in the oxygen content in it (not higher than 8% by volume).

To measure the gas composition of cargo tanks, the following instruments must be on board:

1) a flammable gas indicator, which determines the percentage of gas in the lean atmosphere of the tank;

2) tankoscope - a gas analyzer for determining the percentage of hydrocarbon gas in an inerted atmosphere;

3) a gas analyzer that determines the concentration of hydrocarbon gas over 15% by volume in a supersaturated atmosphere;

4) oxygen meter - oxygen content analyzer;

5) a device that determines the concentration of toxic gases within the limits of their toxic effects on humans.

The degree of protection provided by the SIG depends on the proper operation and maintenance of the system as a whole.

It is important to ensure the correct functioning of the gas backflow protection, especially deck water seals and non-return valves to prevent the outflow of petroleum gas or liquid oil into the engine room and other areas of the ship where the inert gas installation is located.

Chapter 11 FEATURES OF WORK ON THE TANKER

11.1. TANKER CATEGORIES

AT Depending on the deadweight (DWT), tankers are divided into the following categories:

− GP - small tonnage tankers (6000 - 16499 DWT) are used for special transportation;

− GP - general purpose tankers (16500 - 24999 DWT) are used for the transportation of petroleum products;

− MR - medium-sized tankers (25000 - 44999 DWT) are used to transport oil or oil products;

− LR1 - (Super Tanker) - large-capacity tankers of the 1st class (45000 - 69999 DWT) are used for the transportation of dark oil products;

− LR2 - (Mammoth Tanker) - large-capacity tankers of the 2nd class (70000 - 149999 DWT);

− VLCC - (Very Large Crude Carrier) - class 3 large-capacity tankers (150,000 - 300,000 DWT);

− ULCC - (Ultra Very Large Crude Carrier) - supertankers (more than 300,000 DWT).

AT Depending on the type of cargo carried, tankers are divided into:

1. Tankers are tankers designed for bulk transportation in special cargo spaces - tanks (tanks) of liquid cargo, mainly oil products (oil tankers / oil tankers) (Fig. 11.1).

2. LPG carriers (Liquefied Gas Tankers) are tankers designed for the transportation of natural and petroleum gases in liquid state under pressure and (or) at low temperature, in specially designed cargo tanks of various types. Some types of ships have a refrigerated compartment (Fig. 11.2).

3. Chemical tankers are tankers designed for the transportation of liquid chemical cargo, the cargo system and tanks are made of special stainless steel or coated with special acid-resistant materials.

11.2. TANKER HULL DESIGN FEATURES

The design of the tanker set is determined by the type of cargo being transported. The presence of free liquid surfaces in cargo tanks adversely affects the ship's stability, reducing its metacentric height. To reduce this effect, two or three longitudinal bulkheads are installed, passing through the entire ship, and transverse bulkheads, the distance between which is much less than in dry cargo ships.

Ensuring the strength of the hull of a large-tonnage tanker (DWT> 45000 tons) is achieved by using a longitudinal framing system (Fig. 11.3, 11.4).

Rice. 11.3. Cross section of the tanker hull with a longitudinal framing system: 1, 2, 3 - underdeck, side and bottom stiffeners;

4 - bottom knees; 5 - vertical keel; 6 - floor; 7 - longitudinal bulkheads; 8 - frame frame; 9 - frame beam; 11 - carlings; 12 - underdeck knees

Tankers designed to operate in ice conditions are built according to a combined recruitment system.

Oil tankers with a deadweight of 20,000 tons or more and oil product carriers with a deadweight of more than 30,000 tons must have segregated ballast tanks (S.B.T. - Segregated Ballast Tanks), the capacity of which should be such that the ship can safely make ballast passages without resorting to the use of oil tanks for ballast water ( Fig. 11.5). Isolated ballast tanks are located in a double hull and double bottom.

Rice. 11.4. Tanker hull on stocks

Every tanker of over 20,000 DWT and above must be equipped with a cargo tank cleaning system using Crude Oil Washing.

An oil tanker of 70,000 DWT or more must have at least two Slop Tanks. The volume of these tanks should allow the washing of the tanks with crude oil, followed by the separation of the collected oil residues from the water.

Rice. 11.5. cargo tank

G.N. Sharlay. Features of work on a tanker

11.3. CARGO UNIT OF OIL TANKER

On a tanker, all cargo operations are carried out by the cargo system, which consists of pumps and pipelines laid along the upper deck and in cargo tanks.

The cargo device of a tanker is a whole complex of special devices and systems. It includes:

1) pipelines;

2) cargo pumps;

3) cleaning system;

4) cargo heating system;

5) crude oil tank washing system;

6) inert gas system and gas exhaust system. Pipelines. For loading and unloading liquid cargo on oil tankers

On ships, a special cargo system is installed, consisting of receiving and unloading lines (Fig. 11.6).

Rice. 11.6. deck piping

Inlet (suction) pipeline laid in cargo tanks.

Each cargo pump has a separate main pipeline, from which receiving branches go to a certain group of tanks, locked with valves or clinkets. Such wiring of the suction pipeline allows you to independently receive and pump out several different grades of oil products.

Unloading (pressure) pipeline starts at cargo pumps ver-

ticking pipes leading to the upper deck. Further, the highway is laid along the deck and processes go from it to the sides, to which, during loading, you

flexible hoses supplied from the shore or a terminal stander are attached to the load. Deck main pipelines are connected by vertical pipes (risers) with main pipelines laid in tanks.

On the bottom of the cargo tank there are cargo and stripping pipelines. On combined OBO ships, pipelines run under the bottom in double bottom tunnels.

Tankers are equipped with various systems of cargo lines, but the main three systems should be noted: ring, linear and bulkhead-clinket.

ring system(Fig. 11.7) - this system is used on small tankers with two longitudinal bulkheads and two pump rooms - forward and central. Two pump rooms divide the cargo tanks into 3 independent groups with independent deck pipelines, which allow loading three types of cargo without the risk of mixing.

Rice. 11.7. Ring freight line: Fig. 11.8. Linear cargo line: 1 - deck receivers; 2 - kingstones; 3 – cargo pumps; 4 - tank receivers

Linear system(Fig. 11.8) - applied using centrifugal pumps located in the pump room at the stern of the tanker, behind all cargo tanks. There can be two, three, four cargo lines, depending on the size and design of the tanker. Each of them has an independent cargo pump and a group of tanks closes. Lines and groups of tanks closed on them can communicate and be separated by valves, of which there must be at least two. This ensures the transportation of different types of cargo placed in different groups of tanks.

Bulkhead-clinket− the system differs from the two previous ones in that no pipelines are laid in the cargo tanks. Holes are cut in the bulkheads at the bottom, closed with special valves. During loading and unloading, the cargo flows through these openings from the tanks to the tank, where cargo and stripping pipelines are installed, close to the pump room. This system is also called the free flow system (FREE FLOW).

G.N. Sharlay. Features of work on a tanker

At all stages of transshipment operations, it is necessary to control the movement of cargo through ship pipelines. This control is carried out with the help of gate valves or valves. The most widespread on tankers are butterfly valves, with a vertical or horizontal axis of rotation of the plate.

Cargo valves are usually controlled remotely using widely used hydraulic systems.

Cargo pumps (Fig. 11.9). There are 3-4 cargo pumps for unloading on the tanker. They are located in the lower part of the pump (pump) compartment, the compartment itself is located between the engine room and cargo tanks. Centrifugal-type cargo pumps are widely used on tankers, which have a number of advantages - simple design, low weight and dimensions, high productivity. Piston pumps are used as stripping pumps on the vast majority of tankers.

Rice. 11.9. cargo pump

Rice. 11.10. Cargo heating system

The pumps supplying crude oil to the cargo tank washers shall be cargo pumps or pumps specially provided for that purpose.

Cargo heating system(Fig. 11.10). Oil tankers carrying viscous oil products have a cargo heating system. Oil products are heated to reduce viscosity, which facilitates their flow. The heating system has the form of coils made of steel pipes through which steam is passed. The coils are laid along the entire bottom of the tank at a height of about 10 cm from it. Sometimes the system consists of separate sections installed in different parts of the tanks. Valves for controlling the cargo heating system are usually located on the deck.

Tanks are washed with special washing machines with rotating nozzles. Machines for washing tanks with crude oil shall be stationary and of a design approved by the Register (Fig. 11.11). The inclusion of each machine must be carried out using a shut-off valve. The number and location of washers should ensure effective washing of all horizontal and vertical surfaces of tanks.

There are two types of washing machines:

− non-programmable with two nozzles;

− programmable with one nozzle.

Programmable machines with one nozzle can be set to wash certain areas of the tank in 4 cycles and allow you to change the angle of elevation or lowering of the nozzle with a resolution of 1.2, 3 and 8.50.

Portable washing machines can also be used to wash tanks. To connect portable washing machines to the washing line, special rubber hoses are used. The cars are lowered into the tank through special washing hatches located in the upper part of the tank. These machines can be installed at different tank heights and are very effective at the final stage of tank cleaning.

Rice. 11.11. Scheme of a stationary washing machine and its control on the deck of a tanker

G.N. Sharlay. Features of work on a tanker

Washing of tanks is carried out in a closed cycle (Fig. 11.12), i.e., washing water is collected in one or two settling tanks (Slop Tanks). The duration of cleaning, as well as the need to use hot water and chemicals, is determined according to the Tank Cleaning Guide.

Fig.11.12. Intermediate state of a cargo tank during washing in an inerted environment (soot from inert gases on the bulkhead)

Waste wash water after separation from the water in one of the Slop Tanks can be removed overboard using the Oil Discharging Monitoring (ODM) system.

If the terms of the contract or the requirements of the oil port require, then after the completion of washing the tanks with sea water, they are rinsed with fresh water for 10-15 minutes, then they are inert.

Stripping system. Cleaning of cargo tanks is understood as the process of removing oil residues from the bottom, walls and a layer of oil residues after the main cargo has been drained. After unloading oil products, about 1% of the cargo remains in the tanks, which depends on the cargo and stripping systems, the presence of heating, the design of the vessel, etc.

There are three ways to clean the surfaces of cargo tanks of oil tankers: manual, mechanized and chemical-mechanized. This division is conditional, since each of these methods uses manual labor to some extent.

The manual method is a low-productivity method that requires a lot of time and money. The procedure for stripping cargo tanks is as follows. After pumping with cold sea water, each tank is subjected to steam steaming for several hours. When the temperature in the tanks drops to 30-40 ° C, they are ventilated and two washers are sent, who roll up all the surfaces of the tanks from hoses with hot water (30-45 ° C). Washers should be fully dressed in protective clothing and use hose or self-contained breathing apparatus.

mechanized way is carried out with water, which is supplied to the tanks under pressure through special washing machines. Washing is carried out mainly with outboard water of various temperatures or solutions of detergents.

Chemical-mechanized method - this is the cleaning of tanks with the same means as with the mechanical method, but instead of water, various detergents are used.

The stripping system includes positive displacement pumps, centrifugal self-priming pumps or ejectors; shall be equipped with valves to enable the shutdown of any tanks not subject to stripping. The stripping pipeline is laid along the bottom of the cargo tank. The capacity of the stripping system should be 1.25 times greater than the flow of all washing machines operating simultaneously at any stage of washing.

The stripping system must be equipped with control devices: meters, pressure gauges, which must have means of remote display of controlled parameters in the cargo operations control post (PUGO, Fig. 11.15).

To effectively control the operation of the stripping system, level indicators and means of manually measuring the level in the tanks should be provided.

Gas exhaust system. If, during ballast acceptance, loading, or internal movements of ballast or cargo, the internal pressure rises above the control level, the tank may burst. If the internal pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, the tank may collapse inwards, with equally disastrous consequences.

Intensive evaporation of oil products, especially light grades, changes in cargo volumes with sharp fluctuations in air and water temperatures necessitate the equipment of cargo tanks with gas exhaust systems (Fig. 11.13). There are two types of gas exhaust systems: separately for each cargo tank and for servicing a group of tanks. Separate venting devices shall rise above the cargo deck by at least 2.5 m.

- prevent the flame from a burning tank from entering the neighboring ones. The gas exhaust system is supplied with breathing valves (pressure

nie / vacuum), operating in automatic mode (Fig. 11.14). The purpose of these valves is to maintain a certain pressure in the tank.

Prior to loading, the breather valves of the venting system (pressure/vacuum) must be opened.

At the end of cargo operations, the breathing valves are set to automatic mode. To prevent the ingress of oil product vapors into ship spaces, it is necessary before loading portholes, doors leading

G.N. Sharlay. Features of work on a tanker

in these rooms, close tightly. Switch the air conditioning system to closed cycle operation.

Inert gas systems(SIG). Cargo tanks are filled with inert gas in order to prevent an explosion or fire in the cargo tanks. This is explained by the fact that the inert gas has a low oxygen content. CIG produces an inert gas with an oxygen content typically not exceeding 5% of the total volume.

Sources of inert gas on tankers can be:

− flue gas from the main or auxiliary ship's boilers;

− autonomous inert gas generator;

− gas turbine equipped with a fuel afterburner.

Any source of inert gas must be cooled and flushed with water to remove soot and sulfuric acid before being supplied to cargo spaces.

Components of the system (Fig. 11.16):

1. The scrubber (SCRUBBER) is designed to cool the flue gas coming from the boiler, remove sulfur dioxide almost completely and separate soot particles (all three processes take place with a large use of sea water).

2. Inert gas blowers are used to supply purified inert gas to cargo tanks.

The inert gas is loaded into the ship's tanks in two ways using:

− branch pipes of the main inert system for each tank;

− connection of the inert system to the cargo lines.

The tanker is a specialized cargo vessel that can be adapted for both sea and river routes. Water transport is intended for the transportation of bulk cargo. The largest of its kind are ocean-going supertankers, which are used not only to transport oil, but also to store it.

One of the largest supertankers

The largest tanker in the world was launched from the stocks in 1976. The company was the creator Royal Dutch Shell, and the ship itself was named Batillus. About 70 thousand tons of metal and about 130 million dollars were spent on the construction of a water vehicle. In 1973, the world oil crisis took place, as a result of which the cost of raw materials increased significantly. This led to a significant reduction in cargo turnover. The tanker company had the intention to stop, but the contract, signed two years before the start of construction, did not allow this. Breaking the agreement promised significant costs. Today, the only competitor of the vessel is in the world,

Specifications of the Batillus

Immediately after the completion of construction, the ship only fulfilled its minimum standard: it carried out only 5 voyages during the year. Since 1982, water transport has been idle for more time than it was used for its intended purpose. In 1982, the ship's owner decided to sell it for scrap at a price of $8 million. The structure of the tanker included about 40 tanks of an independent type, the total capacity of which is 677.3 thousand cubic meters. Thanks to the division into compartments incorporated into the design, the ship could be used to transport several types of hydrocarbons simultaneously. The project reduced the risk of accidents and the likelihood of ocean pollution. Oil was loaded into the largest tanker in the world by four pumps with a capacity of approximately 24,000 cubic meters per hour. The total length of the ship was 414 meters, and the deadweight (that is, the total carrying capacity) corresponded to 550 thousand tons. did not exceed 16 knots, and the duration of the flight without refueling and resupply was 42 days. To service a floating structure with four power plants consumed 330 tons of fuel per day.

Generational change

After Batillus with two five-bladed engines and 4 with a capacity of 64.8 thousand horsepower was used as storage since 2004 and was disposed of in 2010, Knock Nevis took its place. During the history of its existence, Batillus changed a huge number of owners, changed its name many times and was cut into scrap metal with the name Mont under the flag of Sierra Leone. The second largest tanker in the world is the Knock Nevis, which, like its predecessor, was completed in 1976. The ship acquired its huge size three years later, after reconstruction. As a result of modernization, the deadweight of the tanker approached 565,000 tons. Its length has increased to 460 meters. The crew of the ship - 40 people. The turbines of the tanker's engines are capable of reaching speeds of up to 13 knots thanks to a total power of 50,000 horsepower.

Seawise Giant, or the history of the ship Knock Nevis

The largest oil tanker in the world, which was built in the 20th century, is called the Seawise Giant. The design of the vessel began before the era of double-deck tankers. On the this moment analogues of the ship According to experts, only floating cities with houses, offices and full-fledged infrastructure, the projects of which are only beginning to be considered by experts, will be able to compete with it. The construction of the vessel began in 1976. Initially, its deadweight was to correspond to 480,000 tons, but after the bankruptcy of the first owner, the magnate Tung decided to increase its carrying capacity to 564,763 tons. The ship was launched in 1981, and its main purpose was to transport oil from the fields in. Later, the ship transported oil from Iran. During one of the flights was flooded in the Persian Gulf.

magical rebirth

The world's largest oil tanker, the Seawise Giant, was raised from the ocean floor near Kharg Island in 1988 by Keppel Shipyard. The new owner of the tanker was Norman International, which spent 3.7 thousand tons of steel on the restoration of the vessel. The already restored ship changed its owner again and began to bear the name Jahre Viking. In March 2004, ownership of it was transferred to First Olsen Tankers, which, due to the age of the design, converted it into FSO - a floating complex that was used only for loading and storing hydrocarbons in the Dubai shipyard area. After the last reconstruction, the tanker acquired the name Knock Nevis, under which it is known as the largest tanker in the world. After the last renaming, the vessel in the role of FSO was towed to the waters of Qatar to the Al Hashin field.

Dimensions tanker Knock Nevis

The largest tanker in the world was called Knock Nevis. He became a kind of product of the scientific and technological revolution. As part of the design, a longitudinal hull framing system was used, and all superstructures were located at the stern. It was during the assembly of tankers that electric welding was first used. At different periods of its existence, the tanker was known as Jahre Viking and Happy Giant, Seawise Giant and Knock Nevis. Its length is 458.45 meters. For a full turn, the ship needed free space of 2 kilometers and the help of tugs. The transverse size of water transport is 68.8 meters, which corresponds to the width of a football field. The upper deck of the ship could easily accommodate 5.5 football fields. The tanker was withdrawn from the fleet on January 1, 2010, since then it has not only had no worthy competitor, but simply no analogue.

The largest LNG tanker in the world

The largest LNG tanker is considered to be a vessel called Mozah, which was commissioned to its customer in 2008. During the construction, Samsung shipyards for Qatar Gas Transport Company were used. For three decades, LNG tankers have held no more than 140,000 cubic meters of liquefied gas. The giant Mozah broke all records with a capacity of 266,000 cubic meters. This volume is sufficient to provide heat and electricity to the entire territory of England during the day. The ship's deadweight is 125,600 tons. Its length is 345, and its width is 50 meters. Draft - 12 meters. The distance from the keel to the klotik corresponds to the height of a 20-story skyscraper. The design of the tanker provided for its own gas liquefaction plant, which minimized harmful fumes and almost completely eliminated the risk of an accident, ensuring 100% safety of the cargo. In the future, it is planned to design and launch a total of 14 vessels of this series.

The largest tankers in history

The largest tanker in the world is Chinese. As the generations changed, the ships that have already been decommissioned have changed, the country of origin has remained the same.

There are only 6 ULCC class structures that managed to exceed the mark of 500,000 dwt:

Battilus with a deadweight of 553.662. The period of existence is from 1976-1985.
Bellamya of 553.662 DWT plied the oceans from 1976 to 1986.
Pierre Guillaumat, built in 1977 and decommissioned in 1983.
Esso Atlantic with 516,000 DWT and life span from 1977 to 2002.
Esso Pacific (516,000 tons). The period of operation is from 1977 to 2002.
Prairial (554,974 tons). Designed in 1979, removed from flights in 2003.

The oil and gas industry is rightfully considered one of the most high-tech industries in the world. The equipment used for oil and gas production has hundreds of thousands of items, and it includes a variety of devices - from elements stop valves, weighing several kilograms, to gigantic structures - drilling platforms and tankers, which are gigantic in size and cost many billions of dollars. In this article, we will look at the offshore giants of the oil and gas industry.

Q-max gas carriers

Q-max type tankers can rightly be called the largest gas carriers in the history of mankind. Q here stands for Qatar, and "max"- maximum. A whole family of these floating giants was created specifically for the delivery of liquefied gas from Qatar by sea.

Ships of this type began to be built in 2005 at the shipyards of the company Samsung Heavy Industries- the shipbuilding division of Samsung. The first ship was launched in November 2007. He was named "Mosa", in honor of the wife of Sheikh Mozah bint Nasser al-Misned. In January 2009, after loading 266,000 cubic meters of LNG in the port of Bilbao, a vessel of this type crossed the Suez Canal for the first time.

Gas carriers of the Q-max type are operated by the company STASCo, but are owned by the Qatar Gas Transportation Company (Nakilat), and chartered primarily by Qatari LNG companies. In total, contracts were signed for the construction of 14 such vessels.

The dimensions of such a vessel are 345 meters (1,132 feet) long and 53.8 meters (177 feet) wide. The ship reaches a height of 34.7 m (114 ft) and has a draft of about 12 meters (39 ft). At the same time, the vessel holds a maximum volume of LNG equal to 266,000 cubic meters. m (9,400,000 cubic meters).

Here are photos of the largest ships of this series:

Tanker "Moza"- the first ship in this series. Named after the wife of Sheikh Moza bint Nasser al-Misned. The naming ceremony took place on July 11, 2008 at the shipyard Samsung Heavy Industries in South Korea.

tanker« BU Samra»

Tanker« Mekaines»

Pipe-laying vessel «Pioneering spirit»

In June 2010 the Swiss company Allseas Marine Contractors signed a contract for the construction of a vessel designed to transport drilling platforms and laying pipelines along the bottom of the sea. The ship named Peter Schelte, but later renamed to , was built at the shipyard of the company DSME (Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering) and in November 2014 departed from South Korea to Europe. It was supposed to use the ship for laying pipes South Stream in the Black Sea.

The vessel is 382 meters long and 124 meters wide. Recall that the height of the Empire State Building in the United States is 381 m (on the roof). The height of the side is 30 m. The vessel is also unique in that its equipment allows laying pipelines at record depths - up to 3500 m.

under construction afloat, July 2013

at the Daewoo shipyard in Geoje, March 2014.

in the final stage of completion, July 2014

Comparative dimensions (upper deck area) of giant ships, from top to bottom:

the largest ever supertanker "Seawise Giant";
catamaran "Pieter Schelte";
the world's largest cruise ship "Allure of the Seas";
the legendary Titanic.

Photo source - ocean-media.su

Floating Liquefied Natural Gas Plant Prelude

The following giant has comparable dimensions with a floating pipelayer - "Prelude FLNG"(from English - "floating plant for the production of liquefied natural gas" prelude"") - the world's first plant for the production liquefied natural gas (LNG) placed on a floating base and intended for the production, treatment, liquefaction of natural gas, storage and shipment of LNG at sea.

To date "Prelude" is the largest floating object on Earth. Until 2010, the closest ship in terms of size was an oil supertanker "Knock Nevis" 458 long and 69 meters wide. In 2010, it was cut into scrap metal, and the laurels of the largest floating object passed to the pipelayer Peter Schelte, later renamed to

In contrast, the length of the platform "Prelude" 106 meters less. But it is larger in terms of tonnage (403,342 tons), width (124 m) and displacement (900,000 tons).

Besides "Prelude" is not a ship in the exact sense of the word, because does not have engines, having only a few water pumps on board used for maneuvering

The decision to build a plant "Prelude" was taken Royal Dutch Shell May 20, 2011, and construction was completed in 2013. According to the project, the floating facility will produce 5.3 million tons. liquid hydrocarbons per year: 3.6 million tons of LNG, 1.3 million tons of condensate and 0.4 million tons of LPG. The weight of the structure is 260 thousand tons.

The displacement at full load is 600,000 tons, which is 6 times more than the displacement of the largest aircraft carrier.

The floating plant will be located off the coast of Australia. Such an unusual decision - the placement of an LNG plant in the sea was caused by the position of the Australian government. It allowed gas to be produced on the shelf, but categorically refused to place the plant on the coast of the continent, fearing that such a neighborhood would adversely affect the development of tourism.

Oil and products of its processing are also transported by sea - with the help of special ships, which are included in the category of tankers. Oil tankers are real monsters of the commercial fleet, which have received the status of world record holders in terms of their dimensions and carrying capacity.

Design features of tankers

On the present stage shipbuilding, an oil tanker is a single-deck type vessel with built-in tanks (tanks) capable of carrying hundreds of thousands of tons of cargo. The world's first self-propelled oil tanker "Zoroaster" had much more modest characteristics and could transport a maximum of 250 tons of raw materials.

"Zoroaster" was built in Sweden by order Russian company"Association of Oil Production of the Nobel Brothers". The ship went to sea in 1877. Prior to its construction, ordinary sailing ships were used to transport oil around the world, while the cargo was poured into wooden barrels.

Now tanker hulls, like for most other ships, are built on the basis of a frame to which metal plating is attached. The specificity lies in the fact that inside the tanker hull is divided into several reservoir compartments - tanks, which are filled with oil and oil products during loading. The volume of one such tank is at least 600 cubic meters, in large tonnage ships - more than 10 thousand cubic meters.

Tanker projects that were developed until the seventies provided for the construction of three-axle vessels with a middle superstructure with a wheelhouse, an elongated poop and forecastle. Now tankers are produced without a middle superstructure. Living quarters and control posts are located on the poop of increased height.

Cargo spaces occupy up to 70% of the ship's length. The number of additional longitudinal bulkheads in the sector of tanks reaches two or three units. Bulkheads are installed to prevent cargo from flowing. At present, all tankers with a carrying capacity of more than a thousand tons are equipped with heaters for high-viscosity oil or solidifying raw materials, powered by steam, electricity or the heat of gases from the ship's engines.

Tanker projects provide for the implementation of modern shipbuilding solutions - the installation of bow and stern thrusters, adjustable pitch propellers, remote control systems for power plants and cargo operations.

Operational safety

To a large extent on design features tankers are affected by the requirements for the safety of transportation of oil cargo. Since 1996, under the terms of the International maritime organization(International Maritime Organization, IMO) tankers are equipped with double hulls, the volume of tanks is also limited.

On the one hand, the fulfillment of such requirements makes it possible to reduce the threat of pollution of the marine environment, on the other hand, it makes the hull heavier, which ultimately leads to the inexpediency of building ships with a deadweight of more than 450 thousand tons. One of the latest popular tanker building concepts high degree safety and reliability provides for a design with dual systems - not only the hull, but also two engines, engine rooms, propellers and rudders.

In order to ensure fire safety the space of the tanks, which is not occupied by oil, is filled with inert gases. If a fire does occur, then steam and foam are supplied to the tanks to extinguish the fire. In a number of ship models, fire extinguishing is provided by supplying oxygen-poor engine exhaust gases to the fire zone.

Due to the fact that a number of oil products, including their vapors, have a penetrating ability, the cargo compartments are separated from the rest of the ship's modules by special control compartments - meter-long vertical cofferdams.

If the tanker has a middle superstructure, it is also separated from the tanks by a two-meter horizontal compartment. Safety compartments are constantly open and ventilated. They are used as places to store hoses for loading.

To prevent the accumulation of oil gases in the cargo areas, there is no double bottom. However, such a design solution is not reflected in the high level of unsinkability of tankers, since their hull is equipped with a large number of bulkheads, and the tanks are hermetically sealed. Storages for fuel and water supplies are located in the end parts of the hull, including in the area of the double bottom of the engine room.

Despite serious design solutions to ensure the safety of tankers, emergencies still happen to them - both due to breakdowns and due to crew errors. Recall recent cases: in December 2016, due to a malfunction of the tanker, traffic through the Bosphorus was blocked, and in February of this year, a tanker from Panama ran aground.

How tankers are loaded with oil

Tankers are loaded using oil loading complexes. The construction of oil berths started at the beginning of the last century, which was associated with the rapid development of the tanker fleet and the laying of oil pipelines. The first oil pier in Russia was built in Batumi in 1906. Through its facilities, kerosene was loaded onto ships.

Modern berths are deep-sea, provide loading and accounting of raw materials, bunkering and other operations with tankers in automatic mode. The infrastructure of the berthing facilities includes loaders, metering units, safety, control and shut-off valves, blocks for preventing accidents during loading and fire extinguishing systems.

By using pumping units oil and products of its processing are pumped through pipeline systems, including underwater ones, to fixed or floating oil berths, after which they enter the tanker. In turn, the vessel is unloaded using ship pumps through pipelines laid in tanks or along the deck. The raw material is pumped out of the tanker tanks and enters the tanks of sea and river transshipment points and bases, which also include berths.

When empty (without cargo), water ballast is pumped into the tanks of ships. Before receiving the cargo, it is moved to the port treatment facilities or oil depots. There are tankers (such modifications were also built in the USSR), the design of which provides for the presence of ballast tanks between double hulls. This solution allows not to pollute the ballast water with oil products. At the same time, ballast water does not require treatment before being discharged.

Classification of oil tankers

Tankers are classified according to different criteria, including deadweight (carrying capacity), dimensions and draft. The deadweight division is a specialized classification for oil tankers that applies only to this class of ship.

According to deadweight, tankers are divided into categories:

General Purpose (GP) - low-tonnage and general purpose tankers, designed to carry from 6 thousand to 24.999 thousand tons of oil or oil products, including bitumen.
Medium Range (MR) - medium-tonnage (from 25 thousand to 44.999 thousand tons).
Large/Long Range1 (LR1) - large-tonnage first class (from 45 thousand to 79.999 thousand tons).
Large/Long Range2 (LR2) - large-tonnage second class (from 80 thousand to 159.999 thousand tons).
Very Large Crude Carrier (VLCC) - large-tonnage tankers of the 3rd class (from 160 thousand to 320 thousand tons).
Ultra Large Crude Carrier (ULCC) - supertankers with a deadweight of 320 thousand tons, which are used to transport oil produced in the countries of the Middle East and in the Gulf of Mexico.
Floating Storage and Offloading Unit (FSO) - supertankers with a deadweight of more than 320 thousand tons, used only for unloading raw materials at sea onto tankers of smaller classes.

Classification by dimensions and draft is carried out according to the criterion of the possibility of tankers passing through straits, channels, other water bodies and hydraulic structures. This classification is applicable not only to tankers, but also to other types of ships.

According to dimensions and draft, tankers are classified as follows:

Seawaymax - can pass through the North American Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Panamax are capable of passing through the Panama Canal.
Aframax are designed for use in the Black Sea, Mediterranean waters, the East China and Caribbean seas, on canals and in ports unable to accept larger class tankers.
Suezmax is a class assigned only to oil tankers and denoting their ability to pass through the Suez Canal.
Malaccamax class tankers transport oil from the Persian Gulf countries to China, following through the Strait of Malacca between Malaysia and Indonesia. The draft limit is 25 meters.
Post-Malaccamax, whose draft is greater than that of the ships of the previous class, are forced to head for China through the deep-sea Lombok Strait (Indonesia).
The Capesize class includes tankers of the VLCC and ULCC categories, which, due to their size, are not able to pass through the Panama and Suez canals. They follow routes along Cape Horn (Chile) or the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa).

giant tankers

Among the tankers, which, due to their impressive dimensions, are real giant ships, there are champions. The most famous representative of supertankers was the ULCC Knock Nevis class vessel (at various times also called Jahre Viking, Happy Giant, Seawise Giant and Mont), which changed several owners during its operation.

Knock Nevis is still considered the largest ship in the history of mankind in terms of deadweight - 564.763 thousand tons. The length of the tanker was 458.45 meters, the braking distance exceeded ten kilometers. When fully loaded, the tanker's draft prevented it from passing through the Pas de Calais (La Manche) and the Suez Canal. In addition, due to its size, the ship was not able to pass through the Panama Canal.

The ship was built by the Japanese company Oppama and entered service in 1976. Before the conversion, the length of the tanker was 376.7 meters, deadweight - 418.610 thousand tons. Three years later, after a change of ownership to the Hong Kong corporation Orient Overseas Line, it underwent a restructuring, during which the deadweight was increased by almost 150 thousand tons. After modernization, the tanker gained the status of the largest ship on the planet.

The ship cruised around the Cape of Good Hope, carrying oil from the Middle East to the United States. In May 1986, when there was a war between Iran and Iraq, Knock Nevis was attacked by an Iranian fighter in the Strait of Hormuz. A fire broke out and three people died. The tanker ran aground. It was raised and restored by the Norwegian company Norman International only two years later.

After tankers without a double hull were banned from entering American and European ports, the vessel's transport "career" ended, and it was used as an oil storage facility in Qatar's Al Shaheed field. The ship made its last voyage to the coast of India, where during 2010 it was cut into metal due to the end of its service life. Only one of the 36-ton anchors remained from the tanker, which became an exhibit of the Hong Kong Maritime Museum.

However, a number of experts question the title of Knock Nevis record holder, assigning the status of not only the largest tanker, but also the largest ship to the ULCC Batillus class oil tanker launched in the same year. The fact is that Knock Nevis received its outstanding characteristics only after the restructuring. Batillus, according to the project, had a length of 414.22 meters and a deadweight of 553.662 thousand tons. Thus, immediately after leaving the slipways, he outperformed Knock Nevis in terms of performance. The tanker was built by the French company Chantiers de l'Atlantique by order of Shell (UK-Netherlands).

Since its launch, Batillus has made 25 flights, mostly from the Persian Gulf to Northern Europe. The tanker has been idle in ports for a long time. The company's management was not satisfied with the low frequency of flights and in 1985 decided to sell the tanker for scrap. In the same year, the ship was scrapped in Taiwan.

After the disposal of the largest tankers Knock Nevis and Batillus, the status of the largest operating ships of this type moved to four similar ULCC-class vessels - TI Oceania, TI Asia, TI Africa and TI Europe, built by the South Korean Daewoo Heavy as part of the Hellespont project in 2002-2004.

These ships have a deadweight of 441,585 thousand tons and a hull length of 380 meters. The Canadian shipping company Shipholding Group became the owner of TI Oceania and TI Africa (the original names were Hellespont Fairfax and Hellespont Tapa, respectively), while TI Asia and TI Europe (Hellespont Alhambra and Hellespont Metropolis, respectively) were acquired by Euronav (Belgium).

The tanker industry works efficiently and earns not only thanks to its great transport capabilities, but also due to established traditions and even some tricks. Transportation on oil tankers, like any other major economic area, has impressive performance and its own unique features:

The tanker fleet accounts for one third of the tonnage of merchant ships around the world. The total carrying capacity of tankers reaches 489 million tons. Now there are 9435 tankers of various classes all over the world.
Due to the low price of freight, oil transportation by sea is characterized by high economic efficiency. Such a scheme of transportation is inferior in this criterion only to the supply of raw materials through pipelines.
The vast majority of tanker owners are companies from Greece. The same is true for the commercial fleet as a whole. The tanker market is highly opaque, with operators often resorting to flag of convenience schemes (usually Malta, the Bahamas and Marshall Islands, Liberia or Panama).
Environmental threats during transportation by tankers are practically absent due to the high degree of safety and technological excellence of ships.
The main risks of the industry are related to geopolitics. Ships have to pass through channels and straits, the closure of which can not only disrupt contracts, but also affect the cost of oil. Thus, in the event of a conflict between Saudi Arabia and Iran, the movement of tankers through the Strait of Hormuz may be stopped. Now up to 17 million barrels of "black gold" per day are moving along this route. Another example - blocking the Strait of Malacca will completely deprive China of oil delivered by sea.
AT last years the tendency of oil companies to use tankers as storage facilities for raw materials in anticipation of a more favorable market situation is gaining momentum. Now they store up to 180 million barrels of oil at the same time, which is more than twice the figure in 2014. There are up to four hundred storage tankers in the ports of Singapore.
Crews, when carrying out illegal operations related to the illegal transshipment of oil into the sea onto other vessels (as the Iranians did during international sanctions), turn off transponders, which makes it possible to hide the location and draft of offending tankers, that is, in fact, to make data on the change inaccessible the weight of their cargo. Such ships have to be tracked using alternative methods, including satellite imagery. Pronedra wrote earlier that Iran, in particular, sells oil directly from tankers.
The degree of automation of modern tankers is so high that even the largest vessels of this type can be operated by one person. Supertanker captains are unofficially ranked among the maritime elite.
In order to prevent heating and evaporation of the cargo, the outer deck of oil tankers is sometimes painted white, while seafarers are issued sunglasses to avoid harmful effects on the eyesight of the crew from bright reflected light.
The average service life of a supertanker is 40 years.

Tanker transportation is not just a separate segment of oil logistics, but also a powerful independent economic sector, a whole world of leisurely steel giants delivering colossal volumes of "black gold" to different parts of the globe. The contribution of shipbuilders who create tankers, not only to the development of the oil business and the commodity market, but also to the progress of engineering, the improvement of the maritime transport system and the increase in the degree of environmental safety, can hardly be overestimated.