members of the highest social rank enjoy certain privileges in the herd. They can eat their preferred food, lie down on the best places. The creation of a social order in the herd is established in the process of life communication, the struggle of individuals with the further consolidation of this order in memory. The winner of this struggle for a relatively long time occupies the highest rung of the hierarchical ladder. And in order for an animal of a lower rank to give way or a place, only a threatening gesture on the part of an animal of a higher rank is enough. If this gesture is not enough, a conflict arises. One of the forms of motor social reaction is a threat, the manifestation of which is the pursuit of the enemy, having overtaken him, the pursuer uses the horns. With a weak manifestation of hostility, the animal only shakes its head in the direction of the enemy. Avoiding an encounter with an animal is proof of submission. It happens extremely rarely that an animal of a lower rank is struck or pushed away from the food by an animal located on a higher rung of the social order. If an animal of a lower rank accepts the fight and emerges victorious, then the roles change and the winner becomes a higher social level. Fights in small herds are rare. The more fights - the less social stability in the herd. With fierce fights, anxiety is observed in most members of the herd. There have been cases when in a herd of cattle with antlers not removed, some high-ranking individuals suppress other animals by their behavior, inflict injuries on them and create a restless situation in the entire herd. They drive less aggressive animals away from the feeders, as a result of which these low-ranking animals reduce productivity, because they have less time to feed. The distribution of individuals by rank almost disappears if the animals have their horns removed. When new animals are introduced into the herd, a new rank redistribution occurs. In large herds, the rank behavior of animals has a more negative effect on their productivity than when kept in small groups. From the standpoint of ethology, the most acceptable concentration of large cattle in a herd within 30-50 goals. However, it is also important to take into account a number of other production factors(the size of the herbage, the number of available feeding places on the site, the level of mechanization production processes etc.). In cattle, the daily and seasonal cyclicity of life manifestations is clearly traced. The daily and seasonal periodicity in the behavior of cows in conditions of loose and tethered housing has been studied. Thus, it was noted that during the period from 7 to 16 o'clock in tethered keeping, animals lie down, while in loose keeping, only some animals lay, although they also had very clearly marked periods of maximum rest in the morning, afternoon and evening. Similar results were observed with respect to the timing of distribution of the cud. Rest time in different seasons of the year (summer, winter) varies significantly. Thus, most animals tend to live from day to day in accordance with the established daily rhythm, and they perform different functions at the same time. And this

Maintaining a constant body temperature by the body is an important criterion for the health of the animal and is called thermoregulation.

Body temperature- an indicator of the thermal state of the animal body.

Animals capable of independently maintaining their body temperature within certain limits, regardless of temperature environment, called warm-blooded(homeothermic), they include mammals and birds.

Animals that cannot maintain their own body temperature are called cold-blooded(poikilothermic), these include reptiles, amphibians, fish, whose body temperature practically does not differ from the ambient temperature.

Body temperature is an important criterion for assessing the state of the body of a warm-blooded animal. Increase (hyperthermia) or depression (hypothermia) temperature by several degrees leads to metabolic disorders and can cause death.

In the work of a veterinary specialist, thermometry (measurement of body temperature) is a routine, everyday, repeated, but extremely necessary procedure that allows you to quickly obtain data on the general condition of the patient's body.

What pet owners should know about this procedure:

1. From the point of view of modern veterinary medicine, the temperature and condition (humidity / dryness) of the nasal mirror are NOT reliable criteria reflecting the actual core body temperature (although both the nose and auricles can be cold/hot during hypo/hyperthermia, such observations are subjective and do not always correlate with rectal temperature).
2. In cases where the body temperature exceeds the norm significantly, hyperthermia can be assumed simply by touching the animal.
3. Measurement of temperature "as in humans" in the axillary region is not considered reliable in animals.
4. The only reliable method for determining body temperature is its rectal measurement.
5. In many situations, the general "bad" state of the animal (lethargy, drowsiness, refusal to eat) is due precisely/only to hyperthermia. Timely use of antipyretics (in cases where emergency assistance is required or there is no possibility to conduct an additional examination) can greatly alleviate the condition.
6. Significant hypothermia is also a reason to provide emergency assistance, especially the creation of artificial heating (heating pads, wraps) during the period when the owners get to the veterinary clinic.



7. Measuring body temperature is a simple procedure. Pet owners can do it themselves at home.
8. Temperature measurement can be carried out both with mercury and electronic - medical thermometers (which can be purchased at any medical ("human") pharmacy).
9. The measurement is carried out by inserting the tip of the thermometer, previously lubricated with ointment, into the anus and holding it there until the end of the measurement (the electronic thermometer sensor is triggered or the scale on the mercury thermometer stops growing).
10. In small animals with a fast metabolism (rodents, small birds), the determination of body temperature is most often impractical. It also makes no sense to measure body temperature in cold-blooded reptiles and amphibians.
11. Normal body temperature in animals different types differs significantly. In most species of domestic animals, the body temperature is higher than human (from 35.5 to 37.4 ° C). Temperature standards are presented in table number 1. For many species of animals (especially exotic ones), temperature norms are not defined or vary significantly in different sources.

In this way, thermometry is a simple but extremely informative procedure. It is important for owners to have an idea about the measurement technique, to know the temperature norm for their pet and to have a separate thermometer for the animal in the first-aid kit.

* Table No. 1: the body temperature of animals is normal

Kind of animal	Body temperature, °С
Dog	37,5 — 39
Cat	38 — 39,5
Rabbit	38,5 — 39,5
Ferret	38,7 — 39,4
Mink	39,5 — 40,5
Pig	38,0 — 40,0
Raccoon	37,1 — 39,1
Fox	38,7 — 40,7
baboon hamadryas	38,0 — 39,0
Budgerigar	41,0 — 42,0
Chicken	40,5 — 42,0
Duck	41,0 — 43,0
Goose	40,0 — 41,0
Guinea pig	37,0 — 39,0
Rat	37,0 — 38,0
Mouse	38,5 — 39,3
Hamster	37,5 — 38,5
Chipmunk	38,0 – 39,5
Squirrel	38,0 — 39,5
Chinchilla	36,0 — 37,5
Horse	37,5 — 38,5
A donkey	37,5 — 38,5
Sheep, goat	38,5 — 40,0

Veterinarian Kazakov A.A.

Introduction

Veterinary clinical diagnostics is a science that outlines research methods for recognizing diseases and the condition of sick animals in order to prescribe the necessary therapeutic and preventive measures.

Clinical diagnostics includes three main sections: 1) preliminary acquaintance, observation and examination of a sick animal; 2) the study of the diagnostic value of the symptoms observed in diseases; 3) assessment of the data obtained during the study of a sick animal, as a result of which a diagnosis is made.

A clinical study of sick animals is carried out in separate rooms (arenas), observing personal hygiene. First, animals are fixed using machines or other methods, and then they are examined in a certain sequence, while using the most effective general and special diagnostic methods for a particular case.

Animal research methods are divided into general and special. Common methods include inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation, and measurement of body temperature.

In a general examination of the animal, its body temperature is measured, the habitus, the condition of the coat, skin, subcutaneous tissue, lymph nodes and mucous membranes are determined. This often allows you to detect symptoms characteristic of a particular disease.

body temperature in animals

thermometry hypothermia cat fever

Thermometry is of great help in studying the clinic and diagnosing many diseases, as well as in recognizing hidden complications. Temperature readings also play a significant role in assessing the reactivity of the body and the results of therapy.

The internal body temperature in animals is measured in the rectum, and in birds in the cloaca. The temperature of the skin is much lower than inside the body, and varies greatly depending on the amount of heat transfer. In animals, body temperature is measured with a Celsius thermometer.

Body temperature fluctuations in young animals are higher than in adults or old ones, in females it is higher than in males. In mares of middle age, the body temperature is 38.2 0, in stallions - 37.8 0, and in geldings - 38.05 0

The minimum body temperature is observed at night, and the maximum - in the evening.

Limit fluctuations in body temperature

In a calm state of the animal, the indicators of temperature (0C), pulse rate (bpm) and respiration (in 1 min) are examined and are indicated by numbers.

When a dog or cat is cold, they curl up into a ball, thereby reducing the heat transfer surface; when it is hot, animals, on the contrary, take a position in which the heat transfer surface increases to the maximum. This method of physical thermoregulation is not without a person, "curling into a ball" during sleep in a cold room. Of rudimentary importance for humans is the manifestation of physical thermoregulation in the form of a reaction of the skin muscles ("goosebumps").

In animals, this reaction changes the cellularity of the coat and improves the heat-insulating role of wool. Thus, the constancy of body temperature is maintained through the joint action, on the one hand, of the mechanisms that regulate the intensity of metabolism and the heat generation that depends on it (chemical regulation of heat), and on the other hand, the mechanisms that regulate heat transfer (physical regulation of heat).

Maintaining a constant body temperature by the body is an important criterion for the health of the animal and is called thermoregulation.

Body temperature- an indicator of the thermal state of the animal body.

Animals that are able to independently maintain the temperature of their body within certain limits, regardless of the ambient temperature, are called warm-blooded(homeothermic), they include mammals and birds.

Animals that cannot maintain their own body temperature are called cold-blooded(poikilothermic), these include reptiles, amphibians, fish, whose body temperature practically does not differ from the ambient temperature.

Body temperature is an important criterion for assessing the state of the body of a warm-blooded animal. Increase (hyperthermia) or depression (hypothermia) temperature by several degrees leads to metabolic disorders and can cause death.

In the work of a veterinary specialist, thermometry (measurement of body temperature) is a routine, everyday, repeated, but extremely necessary procedure that allows you to quickly obtain data on the general condition of the patient's body.

What pet owners should know about this procedure:

1. From the point of view of modern veterinary medicine, the temperature and condition (humidity / dryness) of the nasal mirror are NOT reliable criteria reflecting the actual core body temperature (although both the nose and auricles can be cold/hot during hypo/hyperthermia, such observations are subjective and do not always correlate with rectal temperature).
2. In cases where the body temperature exceeds the norm significantly, hyperthermia can be assumed simply by touching the animal.
3. Measurement of temperature "as in humans" in the axillary region is not considered reliable in animals.
4. The only reliable method for determining body temperature is its rectal measurement.
5. In many situations, the general "bad" state of the animal (lethargy, drowsiness, refusal to eat) is due precisely/only to hyperthermia. Timely use of antipyretics (in cases where emergency assistance is required or there is no possibility to conduct an additional examination) can greatly alleviate the condition.
6. Significant hypothermia is also a reason to provide emergency assistance, especially the creation of artificial heating (heating pads, wraps) during the period when the owners get to the veterinary clinic.



7. Measuring body temperature is a simple procedure. Pet owners can do it themselves at home.
8. Temperature measurement can be carried out both with mercury and electronic - medical thermometers (which can be purchased at any medical ("human") pharmacy).
9. The measurement is carried out by inserting the tip of the thermometer, previously lubricated with ointment, into the anus and holding it there until the end of the measurement (the electronic thermometer sensor is triggered or the scale on the mercury thermometer stops growing).
10. In small animals with a fast metabolism (rodents, small birds), the determination of body temperature is most often impractical. It also makes no sense to measure body temperature in cold-blooded reptiles and amphibians.
11. Normal body temperature varies greatly among animals of different species. In most species of domestic animals, the body temperature is higher than human (from 35.5 to 37.4 ° C). Temperature standards are presented in table number 1. For many species of animals (especially exotic ones), temperature norms are not defined or vary significantly in different sources.

In this way, thermometry is a simple but extremely informative procedure. It is important for owners to have an idea about the measurement technique, to know the temperature norm for their pet and to have a separate thermometer for the animal in the first-aid kit.

* Table No. 1: the body temperature of animals is normal

Kind of animal	Body temperature, °С
Dog	37,5 — 39
Cat	38 — 39,5
Rabbit	38,5 — 39,5
Ferret	38,7 — 39,4
Mink	39,5 — 40,5
Pig	38,0 — 40,0
Raccoon	37,1 — 39,1
Fox	38,7 — 40,7
baboon hamadryas	38,0 — 39,0
Budgerigar	41,0 — 42,0
Chicken	40,5 — 42,0
Duck	41,0 — 43,0
Goose	40,0 — 41,0
Guinea pig	37,0 — 39,0
Rat	37,0 — 38,0
Mouse	38,5 — 39,3
Hamster	37,5 — 38,5
Chipmunk	38,0 – 39,5
Squirrel	38,0 — 39,5
Chinchilla	36,0 — 37,5
Horse	37,5 — 38,5
A donkey	37,5 — 38,5
Sheep, goat	38,5 — 40,0

Veterinarian Kazakov A.A.

An increased or decreased temperature in chickens may indicate internal inflammatory processes. Also, this indicator affects the productivity and egg production of the chicken. Therefore, it is necessary to comply with the rules for keeping poultry and to know the body temperature of the chicken in a normal state.

Chicken eggs are genetically programmed to develop normally when incubated by a female hen. Of decisive importance here is the body heat of the mother hen.

Contrary to the opinion of experts, it does not increase, but decreases. In the first week it is 38-39°C, in the last it rises to 40°C.

Normal body temperature of common species of animals and birds

When sick

Chickens are susceptible to many diseases.

The most common are infectious:

• Bronchitis and paralysis;
• Bird flu;
• Coliinfection;
• Atypical plague;
• Pasteurellosis.

The first sign of these and other diseases is the onset of fever, especially if it is accompanied by the following symptoms:

• Lethargy, refusal to eat;
• Discharge of mucus from the eyes and beak;
• Diarrhea.

Monitoring the temperature of the bird will help to diagnose diseases in a timely manner. The temperature of the mother hen is measured with a vaseline-lubricated thermometer, which is carefully inserted into the cloaca. This is the hole through which the birds poop.

Hypothermia and hypothermia in chickens

The peculiarity of the organism of these birds is such that a temperature increase of 0.5 ° C is abnormal and requires the attention of the owner. But this does not always indicate a disease.

Other common reasons why a chicken's body temperature is abnormal are:

• Stress. Chickens quickly get used to the routine, and any major changes in the daily routine and the world around them can cause serious stress. Even a change in diet or transfer to another room can make these birds nervous;
• Heat. If the chicken coop or aviary is more than 30 ° C, the chickens get hot. The processes of heat exchange with the environment do not lead to proper cooling of the body due to the absence of sweat glands in these birds.

Important. Hypothermia is also dangerous, especially for chickens and young animals.

Heat stress occurs, which can lead to death from heat stroke.

Overheating is indicated by the behavior of chickens:

• They open their beak;
• Breathe often
• Lie down on the ground with half-opened wings.

The temperature threshold is 33°C.

These reasons can be easily eliminated with proper care and compliance with the standard requirements for a chicken coop. But if the temperature does not return to normal for more than a day or is increased by more than a degree, this is an occasion for a visit to the veterinarian.

What does temperature depend on?

In all living beings, the normal body temperature depends on internal processes, and is optimal for the metabolism inherent in this species. The more intense it is, the more heat energy is released during the breakdown of substances in the process of cellular nutrition.

Second important factor- the temperature of the environment with which the body of a living being constantly exchanges heat. In hot weather, the body will be warmer, in a cold room - colder.