R.I. Lalayeva gave her own, more complete, description of the errors in the letter. But her classification was presented for children with intellectual disabilities. This classification was based on taking into account the unformedness of certain operations of the writing process.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is a reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing. The child writes as he speaks. At the initial stages of mastering the letter, the child writes pronouncing. Relying on the defective pronunciation of sounds, he reflects his incorrect pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia manifests itself in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. This can be explained by the fact that during internal pronunciation, the child still does not have sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not been formed.

Acoustic dysgraphia (dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition disorders) is most often based on a violation of auditory differentiation of speech sounds. With this form of dysgraphia, unlike the previous one, there are no violations of the pronunciation of those speech sounds that are incorrectly indicated in writing.

Acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in the replacement of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. Most often, letters are replaced in writing, denoting the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, especially stop, affricates and components included in their composition (h-t", ch-shch, ts-t, ts-s). This type of dysgraphia also manifests itself in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the auditory differentiation of hard and soft sounds, as well as the complexity of their designation ("letter", "poot", "lick"). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in stressed position, especially acoustically and articulatory similar (oh, e - and:

cloud - "tocha", forest - "foxes").

Dysgraphia associated with a violation of various forms of language analysis and synthesis - the division of sentences into words, syllabic and sound analysis and synthesis.

The underdevelopment of sound analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in violations of the structure of sentences and words, in particular, in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions ("udoma ratebez" - a birch grows near the house), in the separate writing of one word ("on stepped").

The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis.

Agrammatic dysgraphia is due to the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech - morphological, syntactic generalizations. Agrammatic dysgraphia manifests itself in agrammatisms in writing at the level of words, phrases, sentences and texts.

Agrammatisms in writing are also manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes, inflections (lock up - "lock up", kids - "goats", many trees - "many trees"), in violation of prepositional case constructions ("on the table" , "near him"), in violation of agreement ("children are running", "dress is red"). With this form of dysgraphia, there are also difficulties in constructing sentences that are complex in structure, omissions of sentence members, and a violation of the sequence of words in a sentence.

Optical dysgraphia is associated with underdevelopment of visual gnosis, spatial representations and manifests itself in substitutions and distortions of the graphic image of letters.

Violations in the reproduction of letters in a letter are of two types: a) replacement of graphically similar letters - consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space in ~ d, t ~ sh, or letters that differ in one additional element: i, -sh, l-m; b) distortion of the graphic image of letters: mirror spelling: S-, E-, omissions of letter elements, especially when neighboring letters have the same elements: ay-ay, ai-ai, writing extra elements: w-ii incorrect arrangement of elements: X-SS , t-pp-pt.

There are literal and verbal forms of optical dysgraphia. With literal dysgraphia, there is a violation of the reproduction of even isolated letters. With verbal dysgraphia, the child reproduces isolated letters correctly, however, when writing words, distortions and replacements of letters are observed.

2. Classification of dysgraphia R.I. Lalaeva, M.E. Khvattseva

dysgraphia error letter childish

To the greatest extent, the classification of dysgraphia by R.I. Lalayeva, in the base of which the unformedness of specific operations of the writing process is revealed. R.I. Lalaeva identified several levels of dysgraphia:

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. At this level, children begin to write the way they hear. Because of this, omissions and substitution of letters occur in the letter.

2. Dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition. This level is qualified by what is found in substitutions of letters that are similar in sound. In oral speech itself, such disorders are not observed.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis. There is a failure of syllabic and phonemic analysis in case of a breakdown in the division of a sentence into words.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia. This dysgraphia is characterized by the lack of formation of the grammatical structure of speech, morphological and syntactic generalizations.

5. Optical dysgraphia. At this level, there is an underdevelopment of visual gnosis, as well as spatial understanding.

Certain M.E. The types of dysgraphia also do not compensate the Khvattsevs for today's concept of a violation of writing. M.E. Khvattsev identifies the following types of dysgraphia.

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. During this type, a violation of oral speech occurs, although cheating is preserved in all this. The main mechanism of this dysgraphia is the disorder of associative connections that occur between vision and hearing. Also, omissions, permutations and substitutions of letters often begin to appear. The principle of this type of dysgraphia is the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word and the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders. This type of dysgraphia occurs due to incorrect sound pronunciation. Substitutions of some sounds by others are observed, there is a shortage of sounds in pronunciation, which provoke the appearance of substitutions and the omission of letters in writing. The more intricate the pronunciation disorder is, the more writing errors occur.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the pronunciation rhythm. As a result of non-observance of the pronunciation rhythm in writing, omissions of vowels, syllables and endings begin to appear. But the listed errors can be determined either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. There is a disorder in the formation of a visual image of a letter and a word. With literal dysgraphia, a child has a disorder in the visual image of the letter, distortions and substitutions of isolated letters are visible. With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: p - n, p - i, s - p, s - o, m - sh, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia. It is found in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence and is determined by the decay of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

Identification of the level of speech and non-speech functions in preschool children with general underdevelopment of speech

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The classification of dysgraphia occurs on the basis of different criteria: taking into account disorders of the analyzers, mental functions and unformed writing operations. O.A. Tokareva identified three types of dysgraphia, namely: acoustic, optical and motor ...

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Correction of dysgraphia in the conditions of a school speech center

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Children with homogeneous speech disorders can be combined into groups, which seems convenient when carrying out correctional work. Groups with the following disorders are usually distinguished: Ш phonetic-phonemic disorders (FFN ...

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Overcoming specific writing errors in schoolchildren with systemic speech disorders

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Theoretical basis formation of written speech in children and a modern view on the problem of dysgraphia

dysgraphia error letter childish

To the greatest extent, the classification of dysgraphia by R.I. Lalayeva, in the base of which the unformedness of specific operations of the writing process is revealed. R.I. Lalaeva identified several levels of dysgraphia:

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia. At this level, children begin to write the way they hear. Because of this, omissions and substitution of letters occur in the letter.

2. Dysgraphia based on impaired phonemic recognition. This level is qualified by what is found in substitutions of letters that are similar in sound. In oral speech itself, such disorders are not observed.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis. There is a failure of syllabic and phonemic analysis in case of a breakdown in the division of a sentence into words.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia. This dysgraphia is characterized by the lack of formation of the grammatical structure of speech, morphological and syntactic generalizations.

5. Optical dysgraphia. At this level, there is an underdevelopment of visual gnosis, as well as spatial understanding.

Certain M.E. The types of dysgraphia also do not compensate the Khvattsevs for today's concept of a violation of writing. M.E. Khvattsev identifies the following types of dysgraphia.

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. During this type, a violation of oral speech occurs, although cheating is preserved in all this. The main mechanism of this dysgraphia is the disorder of associative connections that occur between vision and hearing. Also, omissions, permutations and substitutions of letters often begin to appear. The principle of this type of dysgraphia is the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word and the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia on the basis of speech disorders. This type of dysgraphia occurs due to incorrect sound pronunciation. Substitutions of some sounds by others are observed, there is a shortage of sounds in pronunciation, which provoke the appearance of substitutions and the omission of letters in writing. The more intricate the pronunciation disorder is, the more writing errors occur.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the pronunciation rhythm. As a result of non-observance of the pronunciation rhythm in writing, omissions of vowels, syllables and endings begin to appear. But the listed errors can be determined either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions of the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. There is a disorder in the formation of a visual image of a letter and a word. With literal dysgraphia, a child has a disorder in the visual image of the letter, distortions and substitutions of isolated letters are visible. With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: p - n, p - i, s - p, s - o, m - sh, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia. It is found in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence and is determined by the decay of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

Dysgraphia classification is carried out on the basis of various criteria: taking into account disturbed analyzers, mental functions, unformed writing operations.

O. A. Tokareva identifies 3 types of dysgraphia: acoustic, optical, motor.

With acoustic dysgraphia there is an undifferentiated auditory perception, insufficient development of sound analysis and synthesis. Mixings and omissions, replacement of letters denoting sounds that are similar in articulation and sound, as well as reflection of incorrect sound pronunciation in writing are common.

Optical dysgraphia due to the instability of visual impressions and ideas. Individual letters are not recognized, do not correspond to certain sounds. Letters are perceived differently at different times. Due to the inaccuracy of visual perception, they are mixed in writing. The most commonly observed mixtures of the following handwritten letters:

In severe cases of optical dysgraphia, writing words is impossible. The child writes only single letters. In some cases, especially for left-handed people, there is a mirror letter, when words, letters, elements of letters are written from right to left.

Motor dysgraphia. It is characterized by difficulties in hand movement during writing, a violation of the connection of motor images of sounds and words with visual images.

Modern psychological and psycholinguistic study of the writing process indicates that it is a complex form of speech activity, including a large number of operations at various levels: semantic, linguistic, sensorimotor. In this regard, the allocation of types of dysgraphia on the basis of violations of the analyzer level is currently insufficiently substantiated.

The types of dysgraphia identified by M.E. Khvattsev also do not satisfy today's understanding of writing disorders. Consider them

1. Dysgraphia on the basis of acoustic agnosia and defects in phonemic hearing. In this form, the write-off is preserved.

The physiological mechanism of the defect is a violation of the associative links between vision and hearing, there are omissions, permutations, substitutions of letters, as well as the merging of two words into one, omissions of words, etc.

This type is based on the non-differentiation of the auditory perception of the sound composition of the word, the insufficiency of phonemic analysis.

2. Dysgraphia due to speech disorders("graphic tongue-tied"). According to M. E. Khvattsev, it arises on the basis of incorrect sound pronunciation. The replacement of some sounds by others, the absence of sounds in pronunciation cause corresponding substitutions and omissions of sounds in writing. M. E. Khvattsev also singles out a special form due to the “experienced” tongue-tied tongue (when the violation of sound pronunciation disappeared before the start of literacy or after the start of mastering writing). The more severe the violation of pronunciation, the coarser and more varied the writing errors. The allocation of this type of dysgraphia is recognized as justified at the present time.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of the pronunciation rhythm. M. E. Khvattsev believes that as a result of a disorder in the pronunciation rhythm, omissions of vowels, syllables, and endings appear in writing. Errors can be caused either by the underdevelopment of phonemic analysis and synthesis, or by distortions in the sound-syllabic structure of the word.

4. Optical dysgraphia. It is caused by a violation or underdevelopment of the optical speech systems in the brain. The formation of a visual image of a letter or word is disturbed. With literal dysgraphia, the visual image of a letter is disturbed in a child, distortions and replacements of isolated letters are observed. With verbal dysgraphia, the writing of isolated letters is safe, but the visual image of the word is hardly formed, the child writes words with gross errors.

With optical dysgraphia, the child does not distinguish similar graphically handwritten letters: P- to, p. - and, with - oh and - w, l - m.

5. Dysgraphia in motor and sensory aphasia It manifests itself in substitutions, distortions of the structure of a word, a sentence, and is determined by the disintegration of oral speech due to organic damage to the brain.

The most reasonable is the classification of dysgraphia, which is based on the lack of formation of certain operations of the writing process (developed by the staff of the Department of Speech Therapy of the Leningrad State Pedagogical Institute named after A. I. Herzen). The following types of dysgraphies are distinguished: articulatory-acoustic, based on violations of phonemic recognition(differentiation of phonemes), on the basis of violations of language analysis and synthesis, agrammatic and optical dysgraphia.

1. Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia in many ways similar to the dysgraphia identified by M. E. Khvattsev on the basis of oral speech disorders.

The child writes as he speaks. It is based on the reflection of incorrect pronunciation in writing, reliance on incorrect pronunciation. Relying on the incorrect pronunciation of sounds in the process of pronunciation, the child reflects his defective pronunciation in writing.

Articulatory-acoustic dysgraphia is manifested in substitutions, omissions of letters corresponding to substitutions and omissions of sounds in oral speech. Most often observed with dysarthria, rhinolalia, polymorphic dyslalia. Sometimes substitutions of letters in writing remain even after they are eliminated in oral speech. In this case, it can be assumed that during internal pronunciation there is not sufficient support for correct articulation, since clear kinesthetic images of sounds have not yet been formed. But substitutions and omissions of sounds are not always reflected in the letter. This is due to the fact that in some cases compensation occurs due to preserved functions (for example, due to a clear auditory differentiation, due to the formation of phonemic functions).

2. Dysgraphia based on phonemic recognition disorders(differentiation of phonemes). In traditional terminology - this is acoustic dysgraphia.

It manifests itself in the substitutions of letters corresponding to phonetically close sounds. At the same time, in oral speech, the sounds are pronounced correctly. Most often, letters are replaced denoting the following sounds: whistling and hissing, voiced and deaf, affricates and their components (h - t, h - u, c - t, c- With). This type of dysgraphia is also manifested in the incorrect designation of the softness of consonants in writing due to a violation of the differentiation of hard and soft consonants (“writing”, “lubit”, “licking”). Frequent mistakes are vowel substitutions even in stressed position, for example, o - at(tuma - “dot”), e - and(forest - "foxes").

In the most striking form, dysgraphia based on violations of phonemic recognition is observed with sensory alalia and aphasia. In severe cases, letters are mixed, denoting distant articulatory and acoustic sounds (l - k, b - c, p- to). At the same time, the pronunciation of sounds corresponding to the mixed letters is normal.

There is no consensus on the mechanisms of this type of dysgraphia. This is due to the complexity of the process of phonemic recognition.

According to researchers (I. A. Zimnyaya, E. F. Sobotovich, L. A. Chistovich), the multilevel process of phonemic recognition includes various operations.

1. During perception, an auditory analysis of speech is carried out (analytical decomposition of a synthetic sound image, selection of acoustic features with their subsequent synthesis).

2. The acoustic image is translated into an articulatory solution, which is ensured by proporioceptive analysis, the preservation of kinesthetic perception and ideas.

3. Auditory and kinesthetic images are held for the time needed to make a decision.

4. The sound is correlated with the phoneme, the phoneme selection operation takes place.

5. On the basis of auditory and kinesthetic control, a comparison with the sample is carried out and then a final decision is made.

In the process of writing, the phoneme is associated with a certain visual image of the letter.

Correct writing requires a finer auditory differentiation of sounds than oral speech. This is connected, on the one hand, with the phenomenon of redundancy in the perception of semantically significant units of oral speech. A slight insufficiency of auditory differentiation in oral speech, if it occurs, can be replenished due to redundancy, due to motor stereotypes and kinesthetic images fixed in speech experience. In the process of writing, for the correct distinction and choice of a phoneme, a subtle analysis of all acoustic features of sound, which are semantic-distinctive, is necessary.

On the other hand, in the process of writing, the differentiation of sounds, the choice of phonemes are carried out on the basis of trace activity, auditory images, and presentation. Due to the fuzziness of auditory ideas about phonetically close sounds, the choice of one or another phoneme is difficult, which results in the replacement of letters in writing.

Other authors (E. F. Sobotovich, E. M. Gopichenko), who have studied writing disorders in mentally retarded children, attribute the substitution of letters to the fact that during phonemic recognition, children rely on articulatory signs of sounds and do not use auditory control.

In contrast to these studies, R. Becker and A. Kossovsky consider the difficulties of kinesthetic analysis to be the main mechanism for replacing letters denoting phonetically close sounds. Their research shows that children with dysgraphia do not use enough kinesthetic sensations (speaking) when writing. They are not helped much by pronunciation both during auditory dictation and during independent writing. The exclusion of pronunciation (the method of L.K. Nazarova) does not affect the number of errors, i.e., does not lead to their increase. At the same time, the exclusion of pronunciation while writing in children without dysgraphia leads to an increase in writing errors by 8-9 times.

For correct writing, a sufficient level of functioning of all operations of the process of distinguishing and choosing phonemes is necessary. If any link (auditory, kinesthetic analysis, phoneme selection, auditory and kinesthetic control) is violated, the whole process of phonemic recognition becomes more difficult, which is manifested in the replacement of letters in writing. Therefore, taking into account the disturbed operations of phonemic recognition, the following subspecies of this form of dysgraphia can be distinguished: acoustic, kinesthetic, phonemic.

3. Dysgraphia on the basis of a violation of language analysis and synthesis. It is based on the violation of various forms of linguistic analysis and synthesis: the division of sentences into words, syllabic and phonemic analysis and synthesis. The underdevelopment of linguistic analysis and synthesis is manifested in writing in distortions of the structure of the word and sentence. The most complex form of language analysis is phonemic analysis. As a result, distortions of the sound-letter structure of the word will be especially common in this type of dysgraphia.

The following errors are most typical: omissions of consonants during their confluence (dictation- "dikat", school- "cola"); omission of vowels (dog- "dog", at home- "dma"); permutations of letters (trail- "prota", window- "kono"); adding letters (drag- "shuffled"); omissions, additions, permutation of syllables (room- "cat", cup- "kata").

For the correct mastery of the writing process, it is necessary that the phonemic analysis be formed in the child not only in the external, speech, but also in the internal plan, according to the idea.

Violation of the division of sentences into words in this type of dysgraphia is manifested in the continuous spelling of words, especially prepositions, with other words (it's raining- "going", in the house- "in the house"); separate spelling of a word (white birch grows by the window- "belabe will zaratet eye"); separate spelling of the prefix and the root of the word (come- "stepped on").

Writing disorders due to the lack of formation of phonemic analysis and synthesis are widely represented in the works of R. E. Levina, N. A. Nikashina, D. I. Orlova, G. V. Chirkina.

4. Agrammatic dysgraphia(characterized in the works of R. E. Levina, I. K. Kolpovskaya, R. I. Lalayeva, S. B. Yakovlev). It is associated with the underdevelopment of the grammatical structure of speech: morphological, syntactic generalizations. This type of dysgraphia can manifest itself at the level of a word, phrase, sentence and text and is an integral part of a wider symptom complex - lexical and grammatical underdevelopment, which is observed in children with dysarthria, alalia and in mentally retarded children.

In coherent written speech, children have great difficulties in establishing logical and linguistic connections between sentences. The sequence of sentences does not always correspond to the sequence of the described events; semantic and grammatical connections between individual sentences are violated.

At the sentence level, agrammatisms in writing are manifested in the distortion of the morphological structure of the word, the replacement of prefixes, suffixes (overwhelmed- "lashed" kids- "goats"); changing case endings (“many trees”); violation of prepositional constructions (over the table- "on the table"); case change of pronouns (about him- "near him"); number of nouns ("children are running"); violation of agreement (“white house”); there is also a violation of the syntactic design of speech, which manifests itself in the difficulties of constructing complex sentences, skipping members of a sentence, and violating the sequence of words in a sentence.

5. Optical dysgraphia associated with the underdevelopment of visual gnosis, analysis and synthesis, spatial representations and is manifested in the substitutions and distortions of letters in writing.

Most often, graphically similar handwritten letters are replaced: consisting of the same elements, but differently located in space (

At literary dysgraphia there is a violation of recognition and reproduction of even isolated letters. At verbal dysgraphia isolated letters are reproduced correctly, however, when writing a word, distortions are observed, replacements of letters of an optical nature. To optical dysgraphia also applies to mirror writing, which is sometimes noted in left-handers, as well as in organic brain lesions.

Dysgraphia is a partial specific violation of the writing process. Writing is a complex form of speech activity, a multi-level process. Various analyzers take part in it; speech-auditory, speech-motor, visual, general motor. Between them in the process of writing, a close relationship and interdependence are established. The structure of this process depends on the stage of mastering the skill, tasks and nature of writing. Writing is closely connected with the process of oral speech and is carried out only on the basis of a sufficiently high level of its development.

The writing process of an adult is automated and differs from the nature of the writing of a child who masters this skill. So, for an adult, writing is a purposeful activity, the main purpose of which is the transfer of meaning or its fixation. The writing process of an adult is characterized by integrity, coherence, and is a synthetic process. The graphic image of the word is reproduced not by individual elements (letters), but as a whole. The word is reproduced by a single motor act. The process of writing is carried out automatically and proceeds under double control: kinesthetic and visual.

Writing Process Operations

Automated hand movements are the final step in the complex process of translating spoken language into written language. This is preceded by a complex activity that prepares the final stage. The writing process has a multi-level structure, includes a large number of operations.

In an adult, they are abbreviated, folded. When writing is mastered, these operations appear in expanded form.

A. R. Luria in his work “Essays on the Psychophysiology of Writing” defines the following operations of the writing process.

The letter begins with a motivation, a motive, a task. A person knows what he writes for: to fix, save information for a certain time, transfer it to another person, induce someone to act, etc. A person mentally draws up a plan for a written statement, a semantic program, a general sequence of thoughts. The initial thought corresponds to a certain sentence structure. In the process of writing, the writer must maintain the correct order of writing the phrase, focus on what he has already written and what he has to write.

Each sentence to be written is broken down into its constituent words, as the writing indicates the boundaries of each word.

One of the most difficult operations of the writing process is the analysis of the sound structure of a word. To spell a word correctly, you need to determine its sound structure, the sequence and place of each sound. The sound analysis of a word is carried out by the joint activity of the speech-auditory and speech-motor analyzers. An important role in determining the nature of sounds and their sequence in a word is played by pronunciation: loud, whispered or internal. The role of pronunciation in the process of writing is evidenced by many studies. So, L.K. Nazarova conducted the following experiment with children of the 1st grade. In the first series, they were offered an accessible text for writing. In the second series, a text similar in difficulty was given with the exception of pronunciation: in the process of writing, the children bit the tip of their tongue or opened their mouths. In this case, they made many times more mistakes than with ordinary writing.

At the initial stages of mastering the skill of writing, the role of pronunciation is very large. It helps to clarify the nature of the sound, to distinguish it from similar sounds, to determine the sequence of sounds in the word.

The next operation is the correlation of the phoneme extracted from the word with a certain visual image of the letter, which must be differentiated from all others, especially from graphically similar ones. To accurately distinguish graphically similar letters, a sufficient level of formation of visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations is required. The analysis and comparison of a letter is not an easy task for a first grader.

Then follows the motor operation of the writing process - the reproduction of the visual image of the letter with the help of hand movements. Simultaneously with the movement of the hand, kinesthetic control is carried out. As letters and words are written, kinesthetic control is reinforced by visual control, by reading what is written. The writing process is normally carried out on the basis of a sufficient level of formation of certain speech and non-speech functions: auditory differentiation of sounds, their correct pronunciation, language analysis and synthesis, the formation of the lexico-grammatical side of speech, visual analysis and synthesis, spatial representations. The lack of formation of any of these functions can cause a violation of the process of mastering writing, dysgraphia.

Dysgraphia is caused by underdevelopment (decay) of higher mental functions that carry out the process of writing normally.

The following terms are mainly used to denote writing disorders: dysgraphia, agraphia, dysorphography, evolutionary dysgraphia (to denote a violation of the process of mastering reading in children).