The population of the Italian colonies on the Black Sea coast. Italian colonies on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea. II. Reporting the topic and objectives of the lesson

26.11.2019

Italian colonization of the Black Sea coast of the CaucasusAs a result of the Crusades in the XI-XIII centuries. in
Italy flourished economically such
merchant republics like Genoa and Venice.
Pushing back the Arabs and Byzantines, the Italian
merchants took over the intermediary
trade between Western Europe and
East. Soon they became so powerful
trading powers that contemporaries
rightly called Genoa "god of the seas", and
Venice - a port city on the Adriatic Sea "the queen of the Adriatic".

Cathedral of San Marco. Venice. 11th century

Genoa in the XIII-XIV centuries

In the XIII century. weakening Byzantium was forced to open its
the Bosporus and Dardanelles for the passage of Italian ships
from the Mediterranean to the Black. This opened the way for them to the Crimea and
Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Genoa and Venice
competed for dominance in the Black Sea, which was not expressed
only in intense commercial competition, but also in armed
clashes between them. More fortunate was
The Republic of Genoa, which, by agreement with the Crimean
Khanami founded her first trading colony Kafu in the Crimea
(present Feodosia). Having built a number of trading posts
(settlements), the Genoese turned their eyes to the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and
Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. In place of the Russian
Tmutarakan and the Byzantine Tamatarkha (or, as it is abbreviated
called Matarchs) the Genoese founded at the end of the XIII century. port city of Matrega. Matrega was a fortified city inhabited
representatives of various tribes and peoples. She not only
was a link between East and West, but also
was the center of trade with the surrounding mountain tribes.

Bosphorus

The Dardanelles Strait connects the Sea of Marmara and the Aegean.

Buying wax, fish, furs and other goods from the highlanders,
Italian merchants brought to the North-West
Caucasus eastern and western goods. large
Genoese colonies on the territory of the Kuban were
Mapa (Anapa), Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban),
Balzamikha (Yeisk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik) and
other. In total, up to 39 settlements were built,
different in size and significance, but performing
mainly trade and economic tasks.

Mapa (Anapa-modern view)

Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban-modern view)

Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kubani modern view)

Balsamikha (Yeisk-modern view)

Mavrolako (Gelendzhik-modern view)

Did not ignore the Genoese colonies and
the Roman Catholic Church, which sent here
their missionaries. These preachers tried
to convert the Adyghe population, who professed
Greek Christianity, into Catholicism. AT
Matrega was even created a Catholic
the diocese that led the transition process
to the Catholicism of the local population, but large
she was not successful.

On the site of ancient Gorgippia (Anapa) on a steep
on the Black Sea coast, the Genoese erected their
Fortress - trading post Mapu. It was from her that
the then famous Genoese road to the upper reaches of the river.
Kuban, where it was divided into two: one road went to
Abkhazia, the other - to the Caspian Sea. Road by
at that time was well equipped, had
transshipment bases and, obviously, not bad
guarded. The latter was associated with close
relations between the Adyghe nobility and the administration
Genoese colonies. The Genoese were bloody
interested in the safety of their merchants
caravans that moved along the Caucasian
territory. Adyghe nobility saw in the trade
cooperation with the Genoese great benefits.

The Adyghe elite was the main supplier of "live
goods" - slaves who were exported to generally recognized
centers of European trade: Genoa, Venice,
Florence. Slaves were "mined" as a result of endless
intertribal wars, raids on neighboring peoples, capture
prisoners. Some of the common people turned into slaves,
unable to repay debts. Most wanted
enjoyed beautiful girls and physically fit
boys 15-17 years old. profited from the slave trade
not only the Adyghe nobility and Genoese merchants, but also
administration of the Italian settlements. For example, consul
Cops for each sold slave received 6 silver
coins, which were called aspry. We have received information
on trade transactions that took place during the sale of slaves.
So, when one of them was committed, it was written: "Sold
slave Circassian 12 years for 450".

Venice

The slave trade had a negative impact on the development of the Adyghe
nationalities, reducing the population due to the youngest and
able-bodied people.
domination subsistence farming among the peoples of the Northwestern Caucasus
led to the predominance of barter over money circulation.
The unit of exchange was usually a certain measure of fabric, from which
You could make a men's shirt. in great demand the peoples of the Northwestern Caucasus used fabrics brought by the Genoese, salt,
soap, carpets, jewelry, swords. But, using his unconditional
dominance in the markets of the Black Sea, the Genoese merchants established
extremely inflated prices for goods, extracting huge profits from
trade with the local population. Moreover, high prices, for example, for
such an important product as salt was established due to its strictly
standardized import. If more salt was imported (and this could
reduce its price), then its excess was dumped into the sea. In difficult
conditions went and the trade of the Genoese themselves. Great damage to the Genoese merchants
caused widespread maritime piracy. The sea robbers
only robbed merchant ships, but also attacked coastal settlements and
ports. Therefore, the Genoese were forced to hire guards for
escort merchant ships and fortify their colony cities
stone walls and loopholes, to keep garrisons in them.

The irreconcilable rivals of the Genoese remained and
the Venetians, who sought to gain a foothold in the Azov-Black Sea basin. At the mouth of the Don, like the Genoese, they
founded their trading post, the interests of which are often
fought with arms in hand.
At the turn of the XIV-XV centuries. intensified contradictions between the Italians and
mountain population. exorbitant taxes, cheating in
trade deals, the imposition of Catholicism, the capture and sale
people - all this caused irritation. Discontent
infringement of their property rights also showed the Adyghe
princes. So, in 1457, Prince Kadibeldi even took by storm
Matrega. To strengthen its position in the Black Sea
colonies, the Genoese administration resorted to the well-known
"divide and rule" technique, set some princes on
others, provoked them to rob their own tribesmen,
promising rich goods in exchange for livestock and slaves. Consolidation
Genoese influence in the colonies also served lucrative deals, in
including through marriage unions of representatives
colonial administration and the Adyghe nobility.

Mouth of the Don

But in the second half of the XV century. colonial rule
the Republic of Genoa in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov went to
sunset. This was also evidenced by the fact that
colonial cities was transferred to a private bank. In 1453
under the blows of the Turks fell Constantinople - the capital of Byzantium,
the turn was for the Italian colonies in the Crimea and the Northwestern Caucasus. In the last quarter of the fifteenth century the Turks succeeded
capture all Italian colonies on the Black and Azov
seas. Two centuries of stay of the Genoese in the Kuban
ended. It played both positive and (in still
to a greater extent) a negative role in the life of local
peoples. On the one hand, the Genoese introduced them to
best practices economic relations and
production of Eastern and Western European countries,
expanded the circle of knowledge about the world. On the other hand,
unequal exchange of goods and products, tax oppression,
slave trade, and often simple robbery, undermined the economy
Circassians, restrained the growth of population and productive forces.

From the charter for the Genoese colonies of 1449
The consul in Kop had to follow: "... so that in the aforementioned
place not to bring salt more than the right amount for
use. Moreover, we decide and prescribe that
all merchants and others who bring salt to Capario
[Cop] owe all the salt they have left over
completion of work, i.e., after salting the fish, bring it to Kafu or
throw into the sea, under a fine of 100 to 200 asprs per
every barrel...
Also, that every skipper of a ship or vessel is obliged
pay the consul always a year from the ship's cargo one by one
aspru from the barrel, and moreover for what is at anchor, 15
asprov from each vessel ...
Also, what can the consul in Kop receive for each
slave, taken out from there, six asprs ... ".

Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coast of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries.

Testimonies of travelers Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta about the devastation of the North Caucasus by the Mongols and the resettlement of part of the Circassians to the Volga and China. Lack of statehood among the peoples of the Kuban region. Genoese colonies on Taman and the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Unequal trade. development of the slave trade. The raids of the Crimean Tatars on the Kuban in the 10th century. The beginning of Turkish aggression in the North. Caucasus in the 2/2 XY century. The message of the Austrian ambassador in Moscow S. Herbershtein about the Pyatigorsk Cherkasy-Christians.

Empire of Genghis Khan at the beginning. 13th century Reconnaissance campaign of Subudei and Jochi from the southern Caspian to the North Caucasus. The defeat of the Alanian and Polovtsian troops. Mongol campaigns in the Caucasus in 1237 - 40 AD. North Caucasus as part of the Ulus of Jochi. The struggle between Tokhtamysh and Timur on the Terek and Kuban in 1396ᴦ. Formation of the Nogai Horde, its settlement in the Kuban steppes.

HISTORY OF KUBAN

Microbe - for 1 year develops resistance to it!

Οʜᴎ rule the world!

Mi/o are not a primitive life form!

Resistance is a lifestyle mi/o!

It is necessary to ban the sale of A / B without a prescription !!!

Workshop-p.75-79

A/B-Vorobiev- p.95-103

Before the antibiotic era

died from wound infection, puerperal fever.

The era of antibiotics –

Population explosion: decrease in mortality, increase in the birth rate.

(the head is not needed in medicine - it's all about penicillin)

The era of multidrug resistance

In pediatrics

Children are prescribed 40 tons of A / B per year -

There is a protocol for diagnosis and treatment - with the determination of the resistance of the pathogen to A / B and the choice of therapy, taking into account the toxicity of the drug.

In surgery -

preoperative prophylaxis is harmful: reduced immunity

postoperative - meaningless

tender - intraoperative- 30 minutes before incision

Paul Erlich- the principle of the magic bullet:

ʼʼkill the living in the living - without harming the living!ʼʼ

Difficult task –

Let's remember Louis Pasteur's words:ʼʼFor microbes the last!!!

The microbe lived, the microbe is alive, the microbe will live!!!ʼʼ

Who is Goliath? Man or microbe?

A man has been developing a new A / B for 20 years,

Abstracts of lectures for full-time and part-time students

for the direction of preparation of bachelors 131000 - ʼʼOil and gas business. Operation and maintenance of facilities oil productionʼʼ,

140400 - ʼʼElectric power industry and electrical engineering. Power supplyʼʼ,

151900 - ʼʼDesign and technological support of machine-building industries. Engineering Technologyʼʼ,

190600 - ʼʼOperation of transport and technological machines and complexes. Automobile serviceʼʼ, 230100 - ʼʼComputer science and computer engineeringʼʼ

for 1st year students of full-time and part-time forms of study

................................................................................................................ 8

.............. 11

..................... 22

Lecture 7. Socio-economic development, culture, life, religion of the peoples of the Kuban in the XYI - XYIII centuries. ............................................................................ 24

Lecture 8. Relocation of the Black Sea Cossacks to the Kuban. .................. 27

Lecture 9. Cossack settlement of the Old and New Lines. Caucasian war 1817 - 64 years. ................................................................................................................... 31

Lecture 10. Decembrists in the Kuban. .......................................................... 35

Lecture 11. The development of capitalism in the Kuban. Culture of the peoples of the Kuban in the XIX century. ........................................................................................................................ 38

Lecture 12. Kuban and the North Caucasus at the beginning of the 20th century. ................... 44

Lecture 13 Civil War 1918-20 gᴦ. in the Kuban. ........................ 49

Lecture 14. The tragedy of collectivization in the Kuban. ............................... 52

Lecture 15. Social and economic development of the North Caucasian Territory in 1920 - 30 years. ................................................................................................................... 55

Lecture 16. Kuban during the Great Patriotic War. .................. 61

Lecture 17. Culture of the Kuban in the XX century. ........................................................ 66

Lecture 1. Primitive communal system in the North-Western Caucasus.

Nature and geographical location of the Kuban region. Eneolithic and Bronze Age. Tribes of Maikop culture. Kuban culture. Cimmerians. Scythians and Sarmatians in the Kuban. Meotian tribes in the stories of ancient authors. Allans and Huns in the North Caucasus in the II-V centuries AD. Folk beliefs of the Kuban tribes, the penetration of world religions in the 1st millennium AD.

It has been established that the Kuban is one of the oldest centers of human appearance in Europe. It is assumed that the first groups of people came here from more southern regions (Transcaucasia, the Middle East). The Bogatyrka site has been discovered on the Taman Peninsula, whose age is estimated at about 1 million years. Almost as ancient (750-500 thousand years) are the finds in the Triangular Cave in the upper reaches of the river.
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Urup. This era is called the ancient or lower Paleolithic. Pithecanthropes living then used tools from roughly beaten pebbles (the so-called choppers and choppers), but they also made more advanced hand axes and jibs. The main occupations of the people were hunting and gathering.

The beginning of the most severe glaciation - Wurm (150-100 thousand years ago) - coincided with the appearance of a more perfect type of man - the Neanderthal. Cave sites of this time were found in the gorge of the river.
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Guba (Monashskaya and Barakaevskaya caves, Gubsky canopy No. 1) and in the Khosta area (Akhshtyrskaya, Vorontsovskaya, Navalishenskaya, Atsinskaya, Khostinsky I and II caves). The remains of an artificial dwelling were investigated during excavations of an ancient camp of buffalo hunters near the village. Ilsky.

The end of the Ice Age or the Upper Paleolithic (40-13 thousand years ago) is marked by the appearance of modern humans. Monuments of this time are known in the Gub gorge and the region of modern ᴦ. Sochi. Hunting remained the main occupation and source of food. The inhabitants of the Gubsky Gorge hunted wild horses, and in the Sochi-Adlerovsky region, cave bears were the main game.

The Neolithic monument of the most ancient pastoralists of the Kuban can be considered a parking lot in the Atsinskaya cave of the 6th millennium BC, where the bones of domesticated dogs, pigs, bulls, goats or sheep were found. Flint tools and fragments of rough clay pots with round and flat bottoms were also found there. Parking lots of farmers who cultivated fields with hoes from split pebbles are open in the Sochi region.

In the IV millennium BC. the population of the Kuban began to master the metal. Burial mounds - burial monuments of steppe pastoralists, who led a semi-mobile lifestyle, became a completely new phenomenon. It is from the burials under the mounds that the oldest copper items in the region come - a small dagger and pendant plaques from a necklace.

By the end of IV-III millennium BC. include monuments of the so-called. Maikop-Novosvobodno-Bodnenskaya culture. It was formed on the basis of local Neolithic tribes and people from Transcaucasia. World famous finds from the mounds of the nobility in ᴦ. Maykop and near the village of Novosvobodnaya. They found gold, silver and bronze vessels, gold jewelry, a canopy on a silver frame with a bedspread embroidered with gold plaques, bronze and stone tools and clay pots, which were already made on a potter's wheel, the oldest sword in Eastern Europe.

Black Sea coast between 2700 and 1300 rᴦ. BC. occupied the so-called dolmen culture. Fame was brought to her by peculiar funerary structures - dolmens. These are quadrangular stone tombs with a flat roof. It is believed that their ancestors arrived in the Caucasus from the Mediterranean and Atlantic coasts. Having settled on the Black Sea coast, they were engaged in hoe farming, livestock breeding, and hunting and fishing played a significant role in their economy.

The steppes of the right bank of the Kuban in the III millennium BC. occupied by semi-nomadic tribes of the Yamnaya and Novotitarov cultures.
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Only burials under barrows have been preserved from them, in which primitive vessels, a few tools made of stone, bone and, less often, bronze, jewelry were found. Of interest are the remains of the wagons that served the ancient pastoralists not only as a means of transport, but also as a dwelling. The body of the wagon was assembled from wooden blocks or beams, and the four wheels were massive, small and had no spokes. It is believed that the carriers of the Yamnaya culture moved to the territory of our region from Ukraine, and the ʼʼʼʼʼʼʼ’ came from the south.

The beginning of the Iron Age in the Kuban refers to the end. IX - beg. 8th century BC. By that time, tribes lived in the region, which are called places in ancient sources (after the ancient name of the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov - Meotida). It is believed that their origin is associated with the carriers of the Kobyakovo culture of the Bronze Age.

The ancient Greeks considered the Meotian tribes of the Taman Peninsula and the coast of the Sea of Azov: Sinds, Dandaris, Tarpets, Sittakens, Doskhs, Fateevs, Psesses, Torets and Kerkets. Tribes of the Black Sea coast are mentioned, which were not included in the number of Meotians: Achaeans, Zikhs and Geniokhs.

The Psesses, Doskhi, Zikhs and Geniokhs probably spoke languages of Adyghe-Abkhazian origin. The name ʼʼ Sindiʼʼ is of Indo-European origin, and ʼʼ dandariaʼʼ is Iranian.

Meots were engaged in agriculture and cattle breeding. Οʜᴎ cultivated the floodplains of the Kuban and its tributaries, obtaining high yields. Meots bred large and small cattle engaged in pig breeding and horse breeding. Fishing was developed. Significant changes took place at the turn of II - III centuries. AD At this time, monuments of the Meotian and Sarmatian cultures disappear in the Kuban.

Lecture 2. Greek colonization of the Northern and Eastern coasts of the Black Sea.

Causes of colonization YII - YI centuries. BC. Olbia, Chersonese, Panticapaeum. History of the Bosporan Kingdom (Y century BC - IV century AD). Transit trade is the reason for the rise of Panticapaeum and Phanagoria. Greek colonies on Taman. Archeology of the Black Sea coast of the North Caucasus about the life and religion of the Greek colonists; terracotta of Kuban. The beginning of the Great Migration of Nations and the decline of the Bosporan kingdom.

Not later than the 7th century BC. regular contacts of the tribes of the Kuban region with the ancient world were established. It should be noted that the development of the northeastern shores of the Black Sea by the Hellenes was only a stage in the so-called. The great Greek colonization, which began in the VIII century. BC. and encompassed the basins of the Black and Mediterranean Seas.

In the 11th-10th centuries BC. the first ancient colonies appear on Taman and in the Crimea. Among them are Phanagoria (modern.
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settlement Sennoy), Hermonassa (modern.
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Taman), Kepy, Patrey, Tiramba (modern.
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Peresyp), Bata (region of Novorossiysk) and Torik (region of Gelendzhik). In the IV century. BC. On the site of Anapa, a colony of Gorgippia appeared. The colonists probably entered into agreements with the Sinds and Kerkets, on whose lands they settled. The peaceful relations of the Greeks with the tribes of the Kuban are evidenced by the finds of antique painted dishes of the 6th century BC. BC. in the Meotian settlements. However, the relations of the Hellenes with the barbarians cannot be called idyllic. This, for example, is evidenced by the appearance of fortifications among the colonists, starting from the 6th century. BC.

In 480 ᴦ. BC. (according to the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus) a number of Greek colonies of the Eastern Crimea and Taman rallied around the ruler of Panticapaeum (modern.
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Kerch), creating a single Bosporus kingdom. Panticapaeum was by that time the richest Greek colony in the region. It was he who was the first to mint his own coin here. The Greeks called the Bosporus the Kerch Strait, on both sides of which the territory of the first state formation in the history of the entire Caucasus stretched. The ruling dynasty in the Bosporus was the Archaeanactides, whose representatives succeeded each other on the throne until 438 ᴦ. BC. At the same time, not all colonies agreed to lose their political and economic independence. For this reason, in the future, the territory of the kingdom expanded not only at the expense of the lands of the barbarians, but also of the colonies, recalcitrant to Panticapaeum.

The Greeks and the tribes of the Kuban region equally suffered from the seasonal movements of the Scythians. For this reason already in 479 ᴦ. BC. Sinds helped the Greeks in the construction of a rampart that blocked the Kerch Peninsula and put an end to the Scythian raids. The colonies strengthened their position within the framework of a single state. This was facilitated, for example, by trade with Greece. For many years, Athens was the main trading partner of the Bosporan kingdom. The export items were grain (the supplies of which were of a strategic nature), fish, leather, honey, timber, etc.
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A shameful page in the history of the development of the Black Sea region by the Greeks is the slave trade, which they encourage in every possible way among the local population. Luxurious items, wines, fabrics, weapons, etc. were imported to the Bosporus.

The Greeks sought to develop peaceful relations and a profitable exchange with the tribes of the Kuban region. According to the Greek model, the capital of one of the local tribes, Labryta, was fortified. Under the influence of the Greeks, the Meotians already by the end. 5th century BC. mastered the potter's wheel. In turn, the Greeks adopted the costume, combat techniques, and elements of weapons from the local tribes. Under the influence of the ʼʼbarbariansʼʼ, the Greek funeral rite was partially changed.

In 438 ᴦ. BC. power in the Bosporus passed to a new dynasty - the Spartokids, perhaps already of ʼʼbarbarianʼʼ, and not of Greek origin. At the end of V BC. the kings of the Bosporus entrenched themselves in the Kuban and began the gradual subjugation of the Meotian tribes. The subjugation of the Meotian tribes only contributed to their further development.

To con. 4th century BC. The Bosporan kingdom weakened. The campaigns of Philip II and Alexander the Great prevented normal foreign trade Bosporus. In 310 ᴦ. BC. an internecine war broke out between the sons of King Perisad for the Bosporan throne. In the war, according to written evidence, the Greeks, Thracians and Scythians participated.

Very soon, the Bosporan colonies and the tribes of the Kuban allied to the Bosporus were drawn into the wars that Mithridates waged against Rome in 89-63 AD. BC. The sources mention the Meotian leader Olfak, who tried to kill the Roman commander Lucullus by cunning. The Mithridatic wars, which invariably ended in the victories of Rome, depleted the resources of the Greek cities, causing discontent and a palace coup. The ruler of the Bosporus was the son of Mithridates Farnak II. Phanagoria, which led the uprising against Mithridates, received autonomy from the hands of Rome.

In the III century. AD a protracted crisis began in the Bosporus. It was associated both with the general crisis of ancient slavery, and with the departure of a significant part of the local barbarians, who previously provided the Greeks with agricultural products and slaves. However, in the III century. the raids of the German Goths and their allies hit the Black Sea region. Power in Panticapaeum was seized by usurpers. At this time, many rural settlements perished, in the 230s. Gorgippia was destroyed. Finally, in the 370s. Bosporan cities were invaded by the Huns, who emerged from the depths of Asia.

Lecture3. Tmutarakan Principality on Taman in the 10th - 11th centuries.

Campaigns of Svyatoslav against the Khazars, Yases and Kasogs. Tmutarakan is the refuge of outcast princes. The victory of Mstislav Vladimirovich over the Kasogs, the inclusion of the Kuban squad in the army of the prince. The enmity of the Tmutarakan prince with Byzantium. The discovery of the “Tmutarakan stone” by the Black Sea Cossacks. The loss of Taman by the Russian princes due to the Polovtsian invasion. The similarity of the military customs of the Scythians and Pechenegs. Traces of Polovtsian nomad camps in the North Caucasus; "Polovtsian women" - monuments of the nomads of the Kuban region of the XI - XII centuries.

Trans-Kuban and Taman in Khazar times were inhabited by the ancestors of the Circassians, united in two tribal unions: Zikh and Kasozh. Zikhs settled on the coast of the North-Eastern Black Sea region up to Taman. The Kasogs occupied the interior territories of the Trans-Kuban region.

The fate of the Kasogs was different. The most famous leader of the Kasogs was Prince Inal, who managed to subdue the Zikhs for a short period. The memory of him was preserved in the Adyghe-Kabardian genealogies. According to legend, he became the ancestor of most of the Adyghe princely families. The Kasogs faithfully served the Khazars, taking part on their side in all wars, holding back the Alans and Zikhs from raids on the lands of the Khaganate. Zikhs were distinguished by militancy and are mentioned among the hired soldiers of the Byzantine army. By the X century. The territory of the Black Sea coast from Abkhazia to Taman was called Zikhia. Their southern neighbor was Abkhazia.

The ancestors of the Circassians remained the main settled population of the Kuban in the 10th-19th centuries. Associations of Zikhs and Kasogs break up into separate tribes that settled in the North-Eastern Black Sea region, in the Trans-Kuban region and in the South-Eastern Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov.

In the Kuban region, Great Bulgaria became such an early state formation. Even at the beginning of the 7th century, after the collapse of the first Turkic Khaganate in the North Caucasus, new tribal associations arose. In the east of the region, a tribal union led by the Khazars was gaining strength. In the central and western parts of the Ciscaucasia and in the mountains, the Alans grew stronger, and in the Eastern Sea of Azov, an association of nomads led by the Bulgarians took shape. In Byzantine historical writings, the Azov nomads appear under different names: Huns, Gunnogundurs, Utigurs, Onogurs, etc. Their country is often called Onoguria, and from the 7th century. also Black Bulgaria

This was taken advantage of by their eastern neighbors, the Khazars, who by that time were at the head of a strong young state formation that occupied the steppes of the Eastern Ciscaucasia and the Northern Caspian. During the second half of the 7th c. The Khazars broke the resistance of the Bulgarians and subjugated the steppes of the western part of the North Caucasus and the Northern Black Sea region.

In such a situation, Christianity became for many peoples of the North-Eastern Black Sea region a symbol of spiritual independence. Christianity has a long history here. According to Christian tradition, the inhabitants of the North-Eastern Black Sea region were baptized by the Apostle Andrew the First-Called. Secret communities of the first Christians existed in Bosporan cities. Already at the beginning of the IV century. n. e. on the territory of the Bosporan kingdom, a Christian diocese arises, headed by Bishop Domnus.

In the X century. the diocesan center was transferred to Tamatarkha (now the village of Taman), which became one of the basic Christian centers in the Northwestern Caucasus. Byzantine priests preached among the Zikhs and Kasogs and contributed to temple construction in the region. This important status was retained by the Tamatarkha or Zikh diocese later, in the 11th century, when Tamatarkha, under the name of Tmutarakan, became one of the appanages of Kievan Rus. For the first time, the city of Tmutarakan was mentioned in the Tale of Bygone Years, under 988 ᴦ., when Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich allocated this principality to his son Mstislav, who was then still a child. Tmutarakan, according to many scientists, was located on the site of the modern village of Taman. However, the way for the mass Slavic colonization of the Don, Azov and Black Sea regions was opened not by the ʼʼbaptizer of Russiaʼʼ, but by his great father, Svyatoslav Igorevich, who defeated in the middle.
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960s. Khazar Khaganate.

The reign of Mstislav Vladimirovich - the heyday of the Tmutarakan principality and at the same time - the growth of the territory of Kievan Rus. In this regard, it is extremely important to emphasize that despite the absence of common borders with the Old Russian state, the Tmutarakan principality was a Russian principality and, accordingly, a part of Kievan Rus. It is believed that the boundaries of the Tmutarakan principality reached the lower reaches of the Don, where the principality included the city of Belaya Vezha. The structure of the Tmutarakan principality (initially small in size - about 25-30 sq. Km) also included the Kerch Peninsula with the city of Korchevo (now Kerch).

During the reign of Mstislav, the principality determined the policy, perhaps, in the entire North Caucasus. There is a lively trade with Byzantium, the rest of Russia, the peoples of the North Caucasus. The city was surrounded by fortified walls made of raw (unbaked bricks). It minted its own coin.

The population of the city of Tmutarakan, like the principality, was multinational. Greeks, Slavs, Jews and Khazars lived here. It should be noted that during the reign of Mstislav Vladimirovich, a significant part of the population of the principality were Adygs, incl. Christians, natives of the Black Sea and Kuban Adyghe communities.

Between 1016 and 1017, Mstislav made the first campaign against the Kasogs (ancestors of the Circassians). The leader of the Kasogs, Rededya, proposed to decide the outcome of the war by single combat. Mstislav, agreeing, defeated the prince of Kasozh, ordering to erect and commemorate the victory in Tmutarakan a stone church in honor of the Most Holy Theotokos. It was one of the first stone churches in Russia. Kasogi, having submitted, were included in the squad of Mstislav. It is noteworthy that Mstislav, acting as a talented politician, did not deal with the family of the enemy he had killed. The sons of Rededi, according to some Russian genealogical legends, were brought up by the prince, who later married his daughter to one of them. So, using the social institution of atalism (education) common among the Kasogs and marriage ties, Mstislav was able to actually strengthen his influence not only in the Rededi family, but also in the entire Adyghe community.

Soon after the victory, Mstislav entered the struggle for the throne of the Grand Duke with his brother Yaroslav the Wise. In the battle near Listven near Chernigov, Mstislav's squad won. The Russian lands were divided into two parts: Yaroslav remained to reign in Kiev, and Mstislav became a prince in Chernigov. In 1036 ᴦ. Mstislav, having gone hunting, fell ill and soon died, leaving no heir. The unity of Russia was restored. The chroniclers spoke of Mstislav with praise, emphasizing his courage and generosity to the squad. Another Tmutarakan prince - Rostislav Vladimirovich - wanted to make a campaign against Byzantium. At the same time, a Byzantine kotopan (official) poisoned the prince during a feast. Another Tmutarakan prince - Gleb Svyatoslavich - became famous for ʼʼmeasuring the sea on ice from Tmutorokan to Korchevʼʼ. Information about this came to us thanks to the discovery of the famous Tmutarakan stone - a marble slab with the corresponding inscription. The plate was found in the village of Taman during the construction of the fortress in 1792 ᴦ.

After that, Tmutarakan needs to become a refuge for rogue princes for a long time. So called the princes who lost the right to the throne. One of the brightest such princes was Oleg Svyatoslavich.

The Principality becomes for Russia ʼʼthe land of the unknownʼʼ. The prerequisites and reasons for the disappearance of the principality took shape over decades: 1) the absence of common borders with the center; 2) weak ways of communication (mainly through church channels) and itself, which is usually called the ʼʼinfrastructureʼʼ of the principality, including the administrative apparatus; 3) the all-Russian turmoil of the times of feudal fragmentation, 4) the conquest of the southern Russian steppes by the Polovtsians; 5) a devastating earthquake at the end of the 11th century. in the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, the powerful waves of which, finishing off the city, even spread across the Kerch Strait.

The memory of Tmutarakan was preserved only in legends. This city was mentioned more than once in the ʼʼWord about Igor's Campaignʼʼ. Prince Igor Svyatoslavich, setting off on a campaign against the Polovtsy, wanted to "search for the city of Tmutorokanʼʼ". Mentioned in the ʼʼWordʼʼ and the mysterious ʼʼTmutorokan idolʼʼ. The sorcerer-prince Vseslav ʼʼ traveled overnight from Tmutorokan to Polotskʼʼ. Soon the principality becomes a Byzantine possession.

Lecture 4. Kuban lands during the Tatar-Mongol invasion

The Mongol-Tatars began the systematic conquest of the region during the time of Batu, the grandson of Genghis Khan. When their main forces went on a campaign against Russia in 1236 ᴦ., then part of the troops was sent to the North-Western Caucasus. Autumn 1237 ᴦ. invaders, led by the Batu brothers, invaded the lands of the Adygs. This campaign was not an ordinary raid, since it lasted several months, and large military leaders were at the head of the troops. It can be assumed that the Circassians were defeated, since one of the sources speaks of the death of the Circassian (Adyghe) ʼʼsovereʼʼ.

Then the Mongol-Tatars began to conquer the Crimea. According to the prominent ethnographer L.I. Lavrov, it is possible that the campaign in Adygea provided them with the opportunity to invade the Crimea through the Kerch Strait. In 1223 ᴦ. their troops raided Sugdeya (Sudak), located in the Crimea. Having devastated the city and its valley, the invaders soon left - the winner of the Polovtsians and Russians on the Kalka, the commander Subudai, did not wait for the arrival. Khan Jochi (son of Genghis Khan), led his soldiers to Asia. At the end of 1238 ᴦ. The Mongol-Tatars began a new stage in the conquest of the North Caucasus, striking a blow at the Alans, who lived in its central part. After taking the Alanian capital by storm, the nomads remained here for several more months, continuing to suppress other pockets of resistance. During the Alan campaign, Batu sent his troops to conquer Dagestan (1239-1240). The invasion was accompanied by the destruction of villages, the mass extermination of the inhabitants. At the same time, the campaigns of 1237-1240 gᴦ. did not lead to the final conquest of the North Caucasus by the Mongols-Tatars.

At that time, a new ulus (province) of the Golden Horde arose in Crimea - a state formation within the Mongol Empire. After another internecine massacre in the 1360s. The Golden Horde was divided into two parts - eastern and western, in the Northern Black Sea region and Crimea in 1367 ᴦ. Temnik Mamai came to power.

In the first half of the XV century. centrifugal processes covered the vast territory of the crumbling Golden Horde, leading to the isolation of the Kazan, Astrakhan and Crimean khanates. Back in the XIV century. in the Crimea, several feudal families acquired special power due to their wealth: the Shirins, the Baryns, the Sidzhiuts, the Argins, the Suleshovs, and then the Mansurs. In their possessions (beyliks), they had significant immunity rights, being almost independent of the khan's will. The Crimean Khanate arose as a result of the desire of these owners of the Crimea to obtain complete independence. It was the settlement in the Crimea of several noble families that formed beyliks - large feudal principalities - most of all contributed to the emergence of a new state. The Golden Horde could no longer stop the escalation of separatist sentiments in Crimea. With the death of Edigey in 1420 ᴦ. The Golden Horde period in the history of Crimea ended. The first khan, who founded a new dynasty in the mid-1420s, was Hadji-Girey, a protege to the throne of powerful beys, a Chingizid by origin. It should be noted the role of the Turks and Genoese in the formation of a new state. The khanate included the lands between the Danube and the Dnieper, the Azov region and a significant part of the Kuban. Actually, Crimean Tatars lived in Crimea, and beyond its borders, incl. in the Kuban - Nogai Tatars, subordinate to the Crimean Khan. The largest number Nogai Tatars moved to the Kuban from the Volga region in the XVI-XVII centuries.

Lecture 5. Circassia in the XIII - XY centuries. Genoese colonies in the North Caucasus.

The assertion of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a sharp struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa .. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the XII century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world were violated. The main importance was acquired by the northern transit routes passing through Central and Central Asia to the Black Sea, which explained the revival of the Black Sea trade. But the power of Genoa rested primarily on mediation in the delivery of oriental goods to European markets. For this reason, the Italians were forced to look for new ways (through the Black and Azov Seas) to maintain their monopoly position in this area, not wanting to lose huge profits. At the same time, Byzantium, which retained significant positions in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region, stood in the way of establishing merchant republics here. Back in 1142 ᴦ. the Genoese tried to conclude an agreement with Emperor John (Comnenus), however, to no avail. It happened that the Byzantine emperors officially forbade the Italians to visit points of great commercial importance, incl. Taman and Kerch. Nevertheless, the weakened Byzantium gradually retreated from its possessions in the Crimea.

Genoa received the exclusive right to trade on the Black Sea, unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all the Possessions of the empire, etc.

So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appear in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Kalolimen (modern.
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Novorossiysk), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik). Tana (Azov), which had the richest fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trade points lying between Europe and Asia, was of the greatest importance for maintaining the position of the Genoese in the Sea of Azov. Bread, salted fish and caviar were massively exported from Tana - mainly to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of great economic importance - a transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.

Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the center of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved like at home on the Black Sea, completely driving out the Greek merchants from there. It should be noted that all Italian colonies in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Over time, the differentiation of the Genoese colonies takes place, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) retaining commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) having the value of fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies, in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa).

The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea expanded. Already in 1290 ᴦ. Kafa had its own charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and the device of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center. Formally, the government had a republican character.
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The position of the Italians in the region has never been secure. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298 ᴦ., 1308 ᴦ., and the Genoese were forced to flee. During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese reappeared on the shores of the Feodosia Gulf. In 1313 ᴦ. an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, agreeing with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 ᴦ. the resurgent city received a new charter. By the middle of the XIV century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. the outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complication of relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Haji Giray, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to great expense to restore its presence in the Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese made attempts to develop silver mines in the Caucasus mountains. Exploring local lands, they carefully mapped them.

Documents dating back to the 13th century. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources even mention in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. Numerous documents testify to the importance of grain supplies from the colonies. When in the early 1340s. trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted, in Byzantium a serious shortage of rye and salt soon arose. In the contracts of Kafa for the XIII century. often appear large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun. The grain crops of the Alans and Circassians were quickly sold by the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, incl. frankincense, ginger (interfering with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly acquired expensive types of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, richly decorated weapons. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature, monetary relations hardly penetrated into this sphere.

A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, which is encouraged in every possible way by Genoa and the Kafa administration. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded in slaves from among the Georgians and Russians. Mid 15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the mother country was taken under control by the Turks. But the mortal blow to the colonies was dealt only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474 ᴦ.). May 31, 1475 ᴦ. the Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered a few days later. In the second half of 1475 ᴦ. the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana and others.
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Kafa became the center of Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region, where the Sultan's governor was located.

Lecture 6. Russian-Adyghe relations in the XY - XYII centuries.

Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coast of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Italian colonization of the northern and eastern coasts of the Black Sea in the XIII-XV centuries." 2017, 2018.

The assertion of the Italians in the region was accompanied for decades by a sharp struggle between various forces that claimed influence here: Byzantium, the Crimean Khanate, Genoa, Venice, Pisa, Amalfi. As a result of fierce rivalry with the Venetian Republic, which founded at the beginning of the XII century. colonies in the form of trading posts on the southern coast of the Crimean peninsula, Genoa became the monopoly owner of the sea trade routes along the Crimean coast. The interest of Italian merchants in the Black Sea was caused primarily by the fact that the traditional trade routes between the East and Europe (passing mainly through the Mediterranean) were disrupted as a result of the Mongol-Tatar conquest of the world. The northern transit routes, passing through Central and Central Asia to the right sea, acquired the main importance. The Genoese, pushed aside by the Venetians from the Black Sea markets, did not want to put up with such a situation. They agreed to conclude an alliance treaty with the Empire of Nicaea - the Greek state in Asia Minor, which fought against the crusaders and the Venetians for the restoration of the Byzantine Empire. The Treaty of Nymphaeum between the Nicaean emperor Michael (Paleologue) and Genoa was concluded in March 1261, and in July of the same year, Greek troops captured Constantinople. The Crusaders were expelled from Byzantium, the place of the Venetians in the Black Sea trade was taken by the Genoese. In exchange for the provision of material and military assistance, Genoa received the exclusive right to trade on the Black Sea, unhindered passage through the Black Sea straits (connecting the Black Sea with the Mediterranean), duty-free trade in all the Possessions of the empire, etc. In addition, the Genoese achieved a ban on Venetians trading here.

However, it was necessary to negotiate with the Golden Horde, which was in charge in the Crimea. In the middle of the 1260s. the Genoese founded in Cafe (Feodosia), then a small Greek-Alanian village, their trading post, also acquiring, in agreement with the ulus emir Mangu Khan, the nearby lands in their ownership. So, in the 1260-1270s. active Genoese colonization of the Black Sea coast begins. First, the southern coast of Crimea is colonized. Trading posts appear in Bosporo (Kerch), Chembalo (Balaklava). Several colonies were founded in the North-Eastern Black Sea region - Kopa (Slavyansk-on-Kuban), Matrega (Taman village), Mala (Anapa), Sebastopolis (Sukhumi), Kalolimen (modern Novorossiysk district), Mavrolako (Gelendzhik ). Tana (Azov), which had the richest fish market and was of strategic importance in the system of trade points lying between Europe and Asia, was of the greatest importance for maintaining the position of the Genoese in the Sea of Azov. Bread, salted fish and caviar were massively exported from Tana - the main ooraz to Constantinople and Genoa. Tana was of great economic importance - a transit route to Central Asia and the Far East ran through it.

Kafa became the political and economic center of all the Genoese colonies, the center of all Black Sea (transit) trade. The Genoese behaved like at home on the Black Sea, completely driving out the Greek merchants from there. The title of the Kafa consul - "the head of Kafa and the entire Black Sea" - carried a very real content. Kafa ruled other colonies through its representatives - commandants and consuls. It should be noted that all the colonies of Italians in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region were multinational in composition. Even in the Cafe, the Genoese were a tiny minority. In Soldai, Cembalo, Matrega, Kop, the Greek and local (Circassian) population predominated. It should also be noted the Slavic, Armenian, Jewish element of the population of the colonies. Over time, the differentiation of the Genoese colonies takes place, among which the following can be distinguished: 1) retaining commercial importance (Kafa, Tana); 2) having the value of fortresses and centers of agricultural districts (Soldaya, Chembalo); 3) colonies, in which power was actually exercised by local (Circassian or Genoese) princes, despite the presence of officials from Kafa (Mala, Barir, Matrega, Kopa). Given the local conditions, the importance and the apparent remoteness of the colonies, Kafa was forced to pursue a flexible policy regarding recognition in some lz them a great degree of independence. One of the features of some Italian colonies was their dependence not only on Kafa, but also on local rulers - both of Italian and local (Circassian) origin. For example, since 1419 Matrega was owned by the noble Genoese Gizolfi. , having intermarried with the daughter and heiress of the prince from the local (Circassian) family of Biberdi-Biha-Khanum, turned this extremely important colony for Kafa into a semi-independent feudal possession of his family. Gizolfi.Matrega was of strategic importance for the Italians.Located on the shores of the Kerch Strait, it ensured uninterrupted communication of the colonialists with the Bosporo, located in the Crimea, and from there with other Crimean possessions of Genoa.Bata (Barir) was owned in the second half of the 15th century by the noble Genoese I de Marini, and its inhabitants paid tribute to the Cafe. Kopa was under the rule of the local Circassian prince. and from its rulers built a fortress in his possessions, then the consul of Kafa was ordered by order from Genoa to take urgent measures to destroy it.

The fragility of Kafa’s position in Kopa is also evidenced by the fact that, according to the Mouth of the Genoese colonies in the Black Sea in 1449, the consul of Kopa had to “bring gifts to sovereign persons from Zikhia”, i.e. noble to the Circassians. The population of the colony was engaged in salting fish and cooking! caviar, as well as the sale of slaves. Fair trade flourished in Cope (from late April to mid-May). Until the consul of Copa sets the price n; none of the merchants had the right to buy fish - under the threat of confiscation

goods. Strictly punished were those who started trading before the arrival of the consul to the colony, or who prepared caviar and salted fish at the same time. By the way, no one had the right to take salt at the mercy. The post of consul in Copa was very advantageous, it was given as a reward for services to Genoa. The colony of Mala did not have a consulate and trade there was negligible. Mavrolako was the most convenient port of the Circassian coast of the Black Sea, willingly visited by merchants. Bosporo was under the rule of the Circassian

prince, representing a principality of a semi-feudal type.

The administrative apparatus created by the Genoese gradually became more complex and expanded - as their entire colonial system on the Black Sea expanded. Already in 1290, Kafa had its charter, which essentially determined the entire internal organization and structure of the Black Sea colonies, for which Kafa was the administrative center. Then new statutes appeared, the most extensive of which dates back to 1449. Formally, the administration was of a republican nature. At the head of the entire colonial system was the consul, appointed by the council of the Doge of Genoa for a period of one year. Almost all power belonged to him, including the right to torture, determine the price of goods, etc. However, his activities were divided and even controlled by colonial institutions - a board of trustees, a council of elders, two financial managers, and a trade committee. A special position was occupied by 16 general syndics (judges), who administered the court and reprisals. They had the right to bring even the consul to trial. All this Genoese administration, corrupt in its essence, patronized the merchant and feudal nobility, often to the detriment of the prestige of Genoa itself. Even positions of responsibility such as consuls of Tana and Copa were sold with the permission of the bank of San Giorgio by the consulate of Kafa.

The position of the Italians in the region has never been secure. Kafa itself was destroyed several times by the Tatars - in 1298, 1308, and the Genoese were forced to flee. In the reign of Khan Uzbek (1312-1342), the Genoese reappeared on the shores of the Feodosia Gulf. In 1313, an embassy from Genoa was sent to the Horde, agreeing with the khan on the conditions for the return of the Genoese to the ruins of Kafa, and in 1316 the resurgent city received a new Charter. By the middle of the XIV century. Kafa became a powerful fortress, and in the 1380s. the outer line of defense of the city was erected. Despite the complication of relations with the Tatars (since 1434, the Genoese began to pay constant tribute to the Crimean Khan Hadji-Girey, their worst enemy), Genoa goes to great expense to restore its presence in the Crimea. After all, it undoubtedly received large incomes from trade with the local population, the export of colonial goods and slaves to Europe. The Genoese made attempts to develop silver mines in the Caucasus mountains. Exploring local lands, they> spa-telno put them on the map.

Still Xlli's papers. they talk about the exchange of goods with the Circassians at the mouth of the Kuban, about the fair in Kop. In exchange for caviar and fish, the local population received coarse fabrics, and the Genoese received huge profits, which sources mention even in the 16th century. The following goods were exported to Europe: salted fish, caviar, timber, grain (millet, barley, wheat), fruits, vegetables, wine, meat, furs, wax, leather, resin, hemp. Numerous documents testify to the importance of grain supplies from the colonies. When trade through Tana and Kafa was interrupted in the early 1340s, Byzantium soon developed a serious shortage of rye and salt. In the contracts of Kafa for the XIII century. often appear large transports of rye, barley and millet sent to Trebizond and Sam-sun. The grain crops of the Alans and Circassians were quickly sold by the Tatars in the barren Crimea. In exchange for goods provided by the Circassians, the Genoese offered them salt, rice, mustard, spices, cotton fabrics, raw cotton, soap, incense, including incense, ginger (interfering with honey, the Circassians brewed a strong drink). The Circassian nobility willingly acquired expensive types of fabrics, luxury items - carpets, jewelry, art glass, richly decorated weapons. Trade was predominantly of an exchange nature, monetary relations hardly penetrated into this area (the asprs served the Genoese mainly for trade with the Tatars). Bokassin acted as a unit of exchange - a measure of simple fabric sufficient for sewing one men's shirt. Trade was conducted on an unequal basis, since the Circassians did not know the true value of the goods offered to them for exchange. Cooperating with the local elite, the merchants did not stand on ceremony with ordinary people. Thus, the Genoese forced the Circassians living in Kop to conclude profitable deals under the threat of depriving them of salt, so necessary for salting fish. the sea under the threat of a large fine in case of non-compliance with the order.The population of the colonies of the North-Western Caucasus, in addition, was serving a tax duty in favor of Genoa, trying to get rid of it.On the contrary, the colonialists encouraged the local nobility with rich gifts (Genoa allocated special funds for this) The princes of Mapa and the Taman Peninsula were subsidized by an annual sum from Genoa, naturally, in order to keep them dependent.In an attempt to strengthen their position, the Genoese acted hand in hand with papal Rome in an attempt to catholicize the local population ~ largely Orthodox.

Anxiety about the separatism of the princes, the possible uprisings of the Circassians never left the owners of the colonies. The charter of 1449 forbade the Genoese to be related to the local population. In the column of the expenses of the Bank of San Giorgio on the colonies, the sums allocated for the protection of Genoese merchants, as well as for the defense of Genoese castles on the territory of the colonies themselves, constantly appear. The rulers of Kopa, for example, instead of equipping and sending Circassian warriors to serve in Kafa, they themselves took part in the attack of the same Circassians on Genoese merchants who were going to Kopa for trade. From time to time, military vessels had to be sent from Kafa to repel attacks by Circassian corsairs. Second half of the 15th century - the time of incessant unrest, unrest, uprisings of the population of the colonies, held under the general slogan - "Against Kafa!". The colonial system, the meaning of "functioning" of which was to obtain the greatest possible benefit with the least risk and cost - due to the merciless exploitation of the population of the colonies - showed at that time its complete failure.

A shameful page in the history of the Italian presence in the North Caucasus is the slave trade, which is encouraged in every possible way by Genoa and the Kafa administration. In particular, the consul of Kopa could receive 6 asprs for each slave taken out of there. Considering the fact that the consul, not receiving a salary, lived on income only from duties and fines, one can imagine with what zeal the official encouraged the captive selling. The consul of Kafa, who controlled the slave trade in the city, also filled not only the local treasury, but also his own pocket. Most of the slaves sold in the Cafe were of Caucasian origin: Circassians, Lezgins, Abkhazians. They also traded in slaves from among the Georgians and Russians. They bought slaves from the Tatars and the Adyghe nobility, who captured prisoners during intertribal strife. The Genoese dared to capture the Tatars as well, for which they took revenge more than once and even destroyed Kafa at the end of the 13th century. The largest centers of the slave trade in the Caucasus were Kafa, Kopa, Tana, Sebastopolis, and Kafa retained the position of the largest of them in the 16th-18th centuries. Part of the slaves remained in the colonies, but the vast majority of them were exported to the countries of Europe, Byzantium, Asia Minor, and North Africa. Thousands of slaves were brought to Venice and Genoa, and the market was always full of them. Women predominated, because in Italy, in contrast to Muslim countries, the demand was greater for female slaves. The Egyptian sultans replenished their troops and harems with slaves, and new domestic slaves appeared in the homes of noble Europeans. Having put the slave trade on a grand scale, the Italians extracted huge profits from it. A significant share of the responsibility for the development of the slave trade lies, undoubtedly, with the Circassian nobility, who actively participated in the raids on their own Circassian neighbors.

Mid 15th century - a turning point in the history of the Genoese colonies. In 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire ceased to exist, and the sea route connecting the Genoese colonies on the Black Sea with the mother country was taken under control by the Turks. The Republic of Genoa faced a real threat of losing all its Black Sea possessions, and it hurried to sell the colonies to the bank of San Giorgio with a center in Genoa in the same year. It's mighty financial institution already possessed by that time the right to mint coins, collect most of the taxes in the possessions of Genoa, control the Genoese customs, a monopoly on the operation of salt mines. Having received the right to control and inalienable possession of the Black Sea colonies for low price(5500 livres), the bank only completed with this act the process of gradual absorption of the Genoese possessions. Already in June 1454, warships of the Ottoman Turks appeared on the Kafa roadstead. They left only after the Turks, having robbed several settlements Crimean and Caucasian coasts, obtained from Kafa a promise to pay them an annual tribute. It was clear that the days of Italian rule on the Black Sea coast were numbered. But the mortal blow to the colonies was delivered only after the Ottoman Turks concluded a truce with Venice (1474). On May 31, 1475, a Turkish squadron approached the Cafe. Kafa, which had powerful fortifications, surrendered after a few days. In the second half of 1475, the Turks made a campaign towards the Don and the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, capturing Matrega, Kopa, Tana, and others. Kafa, where the Sultan's governor was located, became the center of Ottoman possessions in the Black Sea region.

So ingloriously ended the dominion of Genoa in the Crimea and the Northern Black Sea region. Striving for the fastest enrichment, mercilessly exploiting the population of the colonies, the Genoese failed to create a solid foundation for their presence in the region. Quite often, the reports of the consuls spoke of clashes, strife with local tribes. "Peaceful" or "friendly" treaties, to which the Circassians were forced by force, were almost immediately violated by them. The policy of the Circassian nobility in relation to the Kafsky administration was distinguished by insidiousness. There are separate positive consequences of the long-term presence of Italians in the Caucasus - the Adyghes become known in Europe, since their lands are mapped by the Genoese; the local population of the colonies, including the Adyghe, gets acquainted with the achievements of European culture; the development of trade contributed to the well-being of a certain part of the Adyghe society. In general, however, Italian colonization had Negative consequences for the peoples of the North Caucasus. Attempts to convert the local population to Catholicism were often violent. The slave trade bled the Circassians, depressingly affecting their gene pool. Encouraging this "trade", the Genoese thereby kindled new clashes between the Circassians (since the nobility "was interested in capturing prisoners). The predatory nature of trade delayed the growth of the productive forces of the aboriginal population, based on shameless deceit, monopoly and the absence of an alternative choice for the Circassians .

Similar information.

1. Krasnodar Territory is the southernmost region of Russia. This is the land of two seas - the Azov and the Black. Almost half of the total length of the border runs along the sea.

The region is divided by the Kuban River into two parts: northern, flat, and southern, mountainous.

Rich in minerals. They mainly occur in the foothills and mountainous regions. There are reserves of oil, natural gas, marl, iodine-bromine water, marble, limestone, sandstone, gravel, quartz sand, iron and apatite ores, rock salt.

On the territory of the region there is the Azov-Kuban basin of fresh underground waters, the largest in Europe, which has significant reserves of thermal and mineral waters.

Among the riches of the Kuban, the forest occupies an important place, because. is of great environmental importance and is the main source of valuable wood species in Russia.

The Krasnodar Territory is located in the western highland part of the Greater Caucasus and on the Kuban-Azov lowland. On the territory of the region there are Tshikskoe, Shapsugskoe and Krasnodar reservoirs, on the Taman peninsula and the coast of the Sea of Azov - lakes-estuaries. The climate is temperate continental to subtropical.

On the plains of the region, mainly chernozem soils are distributed, in the mountains - mountain-forest and mountain-meadow soils. Vegetation - broad-leaved (beech, oak) and dark coniferous mountain (spruce, fir) forests, subalpine and alpine meadows.

Geographical position

The Krasnodar Territory is located in the south of Russia and borders on the Rostov Region, the Stavropol Territory, the Republic of Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia and Georgia.

The territory of the region is washed from the southwest by the Black Sea, from the northwest by the Sea of Azov.

The western slope of the Stavropol Upland is located in the east of the territory of the region. In the extreme west is the Taman Peninsula with a system of mud volcanoes. The ridges of the Greater Caucasus begin near the city of Anapa and have a direction from northwest to southeast.

A significant part of the region is occupied by chernozem soils used in agriculture. Mountain-forest and mountain-meadow soils predominate in the foothill and mountainous areas, and swamp soils prevail in the floodplain zones.

The animal world is vast and varied.

In total there are: 320 species of birds; 163 species of fish; mammals - 86 species; reptiles - 21; amphibians - 11 species.

South Russian ports are located on the territory of the region: Novorossiysk, Tuapse, Sochi, Yeysk, Temryuk. The region is the most important resort center of Russia.

The reservoirs of the Krasnodar Territory belong to the basins of the Black and Azov Seas. In total, there are 13 thousand large and small rivers in the region. The largest river is the Kuban, which originates in the foothills of Elbrus and flows through the territory of Karachay-Cherkessia, the Stavropol Territory and the Republic of Adygea.

The water network of the region is complemented by numerous estuaries (about 250), concentrated along the coast of the Sea of Azov. In addition to natural reservoirs, there is a network of reservoirs that play an important role in the local economy.

The waters of the Kuban river basin used for rice cultivation are extremely polluted. As a result, there is a decrease in water quality.

Groundwater is of the greatest importance for the life of the Krasnodar Territory.

In the 13th-15th centuries, Italian trading posts appeared in the Black Sea and Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov, founded by Genoa, Venice and Pisa. After the crusaders captured Constantinople in 1204, Italian merchants settled in Byzantium, and from Constantinople penetrated into the Crimea and the coast of the Sea of Azov. One of the first trading posts - Porto Pisano (near modern Taganrog) was founded by Pisa in the first half of the 13th century. The process of intensive commercial colonization of the Black Sea region began in the 60s of the XIII century, after in 1261 Genoa concluded the Treaty of Nymphaeum with the Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos, according to which it received the right to sail and duty-free trade on the Black Sea. In 1265, the Venetians also received such a right. The process of colonization of the Black Sea and Azov regions was accompanied by a sharp competitive struggle both between Genoa and Venice, and between the factories founded by them.

The Venetians and Genoese also concluded agreements with the khans of the Golden Horde, according to which part of the territory in the Crimea and on the Azov coast was assigned to them in order to create trading colonies (with recognition of the supreme power of the khan). In the 60s of the XIII century, Genoa settled in Kaffa (modern Feodosia), which became the largest port and shopping center in the Black Sea region. The Venetians set up trading posts in Soldaya (now the city of Sudak in the Crimea, around 1287) and Trebizond (in the 80s of the 13th century). In total, in the Crimea, the Sea of \u200b\u200bAzov and the Caucasus, there were about 40 Italian trading posts-colonies.

These colonies were ruled by consuls-bailo, elected in the metropolis for 1-2 years. Together with the consuls, the factories were governed by elected city councils of noble merchants (citizens of the metropolis) and citizens of the factories. The citizens of the trading posts were mostly Italians (who constituted a minority of the townspeople), although the composition of the urban population was extremely diverse: Greeks, Armenians, Russians, Jews, Tatars, etc. Non-Italians had certain legal rights, freedom of religion, could carry out military and civil service (except for holding elected positions), participate in joint trading companies. But the Genoese and Venetian colonies, like their mother countries, were constantly at war with each other, although in the same colony (for example, Trebizond or Tana) there could be trading posts of two trading republics. Periodically, the colonies were ruined by the Tatars, but they were destroyed only after the Turkish conquest. In 1453, after the fall of Constantinople, the trading posts were cut off from the metropolises and were gradually conquered by the Ottomans.

According to the agreement of 1332, concluded by the ambassador A. Zeno and Khan Uzbek, Venice received a piece of land on the left bank of the Don, near the city of Azak. Here the most remote Venetian trading post Tana was founded. It was ruled, like other trading posts, by the Venetian consul. Almost simultaneously with the Venetians in Tana, the Genoese also create their trading post. Factories paid Khan Uzbek a three percent duty on goods passing through them. Living conditions in Tana were not easy, the Genoese and Venetians were often at enmity with each other. In addition, the inhabitants of trading posts experienced a constant threat from nomads, who at the same time were trading partners, and enemies.

The competitive struggle between Venice and Genoa for Tana ended with the victory of Genoa. Under Khan Dzhanibek in 1343, Tana was captured by the Tatars, and the Venetians were expelled for five years (the reason for this expulsion was the murder of a Tatar in Tana). Following the expulsion from Tana, Venice was defeated in the war with Genoa and in 1355 access to Tana was closed to her for another 3 years. In 1381, Venice was again defeated by Genoa, after which it lost access to Tana for another 2 years. Thus, the Genoese began to dominate in Tana.

Wheat, fish and caviar, furs, wax, spices and sandalwood (in transit from the East), leather, honey were exported from Tana to Italy. Tana imported fabrics, copper and tin. One of the main sources of income was the slave trade. Representing the continuation of Azak, Tana was also surrounded by stone walls and turned into a fortress. Many interesting monuments remained from the Italian Tana. Among them is a white marble tombstone on the grave of Giacomo Cornaro, envoy and consul of the Republic of Venice, who died in Tana in 1362.

Like Azak, Tana suffered during Timur's campaign against the Horde in 1395. Around 1400, it was rebuilt again. Tana was attacked several more times by the Tatars: in 1410, 1418 and 1442. In the last period of Tana's existence, the Genoese and Venetians were forced to show solidarity and mutual assistance in the face of an external threat. However, it was not the external danger that led to the gradual decline of Tana, but the cessation of transit trade with the countries of the East, as a result of Timur's defeat of Khorezm, one of the main partners in the East. By the time the Ottomans captured Tana in 1475, she had already fallen into disrepair.

The Italians also penetrated into the Caucasus. The most important Genoese colonies were Matrenga, Kopa (on the right bank of the Kuban), Mapa (Anapa), Peshe (at the mouth of the Kuban) and others. Venice had only two significant trading posts here - in Tana and Trebizond.

The largest Italian colony in the Caucasus was Matrenga (former Tmutarakan on the Taman Peninsula). Until the beginning of the 15th century, Matrenga was under the rule of a Circassian prince. In 1419, after the marriage of the Genoese Gizolfi with the daughter of the Circassian prince Bika-Khanum, Matrenga became the possession of the Gizolfi family. The number of Italians - residents of Matrenga - was insignificant; predominantly Greek and Adyghe population. Matrenga was a trading outpost in the North Caucasus. The basis for trade with Genoa was the export of fish and caviar, furs, skins, bread, wax and honey. One of the most important items of export were slaves, who were captured during military raids. Slaves were supplied to the Genoese by Tatars, Circassians, Alans and other peoples of the Caucasus. Often the Genoese themselves organized expeditions for slaves. The Italians imported various fabrics, carpets, raw cotton, Venetian glass, soap, saber blades, spices and other goods to the North Caucasus.

From Matrenga and other colonies, the Italians moved further into the mountains of the Northwestern Caucasus. This is evidenced by the ruins of castles, towers and churches in the mountains, stone tomb crosses. From here came the missionary activity of the Catholic Church. After the formation of the Crimean Khanate in 1433, the Genoese colonies were forced to pay tribute to him. The end of Matrenga and other colonies was put in the 70s of the XV century by the Ottomans, who captured Kaffa and Tana.

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This topic belongs to:

Mongol-Tatar invasion of the North Caucasus

Italian colonies on the northeastern coast of the Black Sea - Venetians and Genoese .. the beginning of the development of the Kuban by the Cossacks ..

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