Foreign trade and foreign trade policy who to work with. International trade. Foreign Trade Terms

06.03.2023

Foreign trade is characterized by a number of indicators, the most important of which are the export and import quota (indicators characterizing the importance of exports and imports for the country's economy), the value of exports and imports, the dynamics and structure of foreign trade.

The dynamics of foreign trade characterizes the change in the pace of development of exports and imports, the structure - the commodity filling of foreign trade flows, expressed by large groups of goods.

There are many types of foreign trade - counter (barter transactions, counter purchases, compensation agreements, clearing, etc.), trade through intermediaries ^ (simple and attorney commission agents, agents), exchange, auction, international trading (tenders).

The successful development of foreign trade of all countries is largely determined by the level of prices in the world market. The world price of goods entering the foreign trade turnover is the monetary expression of the international value of the goods. Features of pricing in the world market are primarily in the multiplicity of prices for similar types of products, which is characteristic of international trade. The prices for similar goods depend on the place of sale, the time of sale, the relationship between the buyer and the seller, the terms of the commercial transaction (contract), the nature of the market, the sources of price information, and the type of trade.

However, the pricing processes are based on the world price. World prices are the prices at which large export-import transactions are concluded in the main centers of world trade. They are based on international production costs. World prices are formed under the decisive influence of production conditions in countries that are the main suppliers of goods on the world market, as well as under the influence of supply and demand for this product on the world market.

Each state pursues a foreign trade policy, is engaged in the regulation of foreign trade. The main forms, methods and tools in this case are customs and tariff regulation, licensing, quotas (setting certain volumes), tax, monetary and financial, political methods, etc. The totality of the forms and methods used by the state determines the foreign trade regime. The foreign trade regime can be the most favorable regime (preferential for all counterparties), preferential (preferential for one or a group of countries) and national, which provides benefits that are used by national firms.

In modern state regulation of foreign trade, two trends constantly interact: liberalization and protectionism .

Liberalization means moving towards greater freedom of trade and the abolition of all kinds of restrictions. Protectionism , on the contrary, provides for a policy of protecting the domestic market through customs tariffs and non-tariff restrictions (import quotas, licensing, anti-dumping duties, etc.), which are a kind of barriers to the flow of goods and services from or to a country. The most important of them are customs tariffs.

Customs tariffs - customs duties, which are levied on goods when crossing the state border, - perform the functions of protecting national producers from external competition, act as a source of revenue for the state budget, and serve as a means of improving the conditions for access of national goods to foreign markets. They are divided into import (charged upon import of goods) and export (at export). Customs duty rates can be set as a percentage of the customs value of goods, determined in a fixed amount per unit of taxable goods (specific rates) and be combined (combine both types of rates). As customs tariffs decrease, states are increasingly using non-tariff regulation methods, which Currently, there are more than 50. The most widespread of them are import quotas - quantitative restrictions on the volume of foreign products of one kind or another, allowed annually to be imported into the country. The state issues a limited number of licenses allowing imports and prohibits unlicensed imports. If the volume of licensed imports is less than demand in the domestic market, then the quota not only reduces the volume of imports, but also leads to an excess of domestic prices over world ones. Incorrect quota setting can also lead to the emergence of monopolies or waste of resources in the country. The gains and losses of countries participating in international trade are one of the most important objects of economic analysis of world economic relations.

34.Macroeconomic problems of the transitional economy

There are two different concepts for implementing this transition.

« Gradualism” involves the implementation of reforms slowly, step by step. This concept sees the state as the source of market transformations, which should gradually replace the elements of the administrative-command economy with market relations. At the initial stage of transformation, it is necessary to regulate wages, prices, control over external relations, banks, and licensing management. Hungary and China have followed this path of reform quite successfully.

The opposite of “gradualism” is the concept of “ shock therapy» is built mainly on a liberal approach to the regulation of the economic system. Liberalism proceeds from the fact that the market is the most efficient form of economic activity capable of self-organization. Therefore, transformations of the transitional period should take place with minimal participation of the state. The main task of the state is to maintain the stability of the financial system, since the market cannot exist without a stable monetary unit. Therefore, the fight against inflation is the core of the liberal doctrine.

Supporters of the liberal approach, including monetarists, consider price liberalization and a sharp reduction in government spending to be the main instrument of anti-inflationary policy. It is this step, extremely painful for the economy, that is called “shock therapy”. The choice that most countries with economies in transition make in favor of "shock therapy" is due to objective factors. At the initial stage of the transition period, there are often no conditions for the implementation of the “gradualism” strategy.

There is no single package of reforms that is suitable for all transition economies, as conditions differ in many ways. Nevertheless, it is possible to identify common elements of the transition strategy to a market economy.

1) Economic liberalization

2) Macroeconomic financial stabilization

3) Institutional transformation

At the turn of the 1980s and 1990s, many economists who dealt with the problem of transforming command-type economies and underdeveloped economies towards the creation of a developed market-type economy came to a common opinion about the need to implement a number of measures that would allow such a transformation to take place. This set of measures is called "Washington Consensus" and included the following list of recommendations for countries reforming their economies:

1) budget discipline(large and persistent budget deficits contribute to inflation and capital flight; therefore, governments should keep it to a minimum);

2) prioritizing public spending(subsidies to manufacturing enterprises should be reduced or eliminated altogether; government spending should be redirected to education, health care and infrastructure development);

3) tax reform(the tax base "should be broad", that is, all companies and entrepreneurs should bear a uniform tax burden, and marginal tax rates "should be moderate");

4) interest rates(domestic financial markets should determine the size of the country's interest rates; rates should be positive because in this case, capital flight from the country is reduced and savings are increased);

5) exchange rates(developing countries should maintain exchange rates at a level that would stimulate exports);

6) trade liberalization(foreign trade tariffs should be minimized and should never be applied to intermediate goods necessary for the production of exports);

7) foreign direct investment(foreign investment can bring the necessary capital and skilled management of companies and therefore should be encouraged);

8) privatization(private industry functions more efficiently because the managers either "have a direct personal share in the profits of the enterprise" or "are accountable to those who have it"; state enterprises should be privatized);

9) deregulation(Excessive government regulation can encourage corruption and discrimination against smaller businesses that do not have wide access to the upper echelons of the bureaucracy; governments should deregulate the economy);

10) ensuring the rights of private property(private property rights must be strengthened; weak laws and a bad legal system reduce incentives to accumulate and accumulate wealth).

Among the most important conditions that have added to the list of the "Washington consensus" in recent years, the following are often cited;

A well-functioning legal system based on developed legislation that ensures the legal aspects of the functioning of a market economy;

Well-trained and highly paid government officials (this condition, in particular, helps to reduce corruption);

A well-educated workforce and therefore a well-developed education system;

Absence of a huge gap in the incomes of the richest and poorest parts of society (the presence of a very significant gap is a threat to the political stability of society and an obstacle to the growth of investment);

An efficient telecommunications system, which is necessary for the reliable operation of the financial sector and other sectors of the economy.

The economy of a country can be open or closed.

The openness of the economy should be understood as the antithesis of autarky, the economy of self-sufficiency, self-reliance in its extreme manifestations. The formation of an open economy is an objective trend in world development. Action in accordance with the principles of an open economy is the recognition of the standards of the world market, action in accordance with its laws.

Benefits of an open economy are:

§ deepening the specialization and cooperation of production;

§ rational distribution of resources depending on the degree of efficiency;

§ dissemination of world experience through the system of international economic relations;

§ growth of competition between domestic producers, stimulated by competition in the world market.

An open economy implies the integrity of the economy, a single economic complex integrated into the world economy, the world market. An open economy is the elimination of the state monopoly of foreign trade (in most positions while maintaining state control), the effective use of the principle of comparative advantages in the international division of labor, the active use of various forms of joint venture, the organization of free enterprise zones.

One of the most important criteria for an open economy is a country's favorable investment climate, which stimulates the inflow of capital investments, technologies, and information within the framework determined by economic feasibility and international competitiveness (at the sectoral and macroeconomic levels). An open economy implies a reasonable accessibility of the domestic market for the inflow of foreign capital, goods, technologies, information, labor.

An open economy requires significant state intervention in the formation of a mechanism for its implementation at the level of reasonable sufficiency. There is no absolute openness of the economy in any country.

Quantitative indicators of openness include the share of exports and imports in the gross domestic product. Their combination gives an idea of the scale of links between individual national economies and the world market. Thus, the ratio of exports to GDP is defined as an export quota.

Another indicator of the openness of the economy, expressing the ratio between imports and gross domestic product (GDP), is the indicator of the import quota.

The foreign trade quota (FTC) is usually referred to as a more comprehensive indicator of openness.

An open economy is the main link in the world economy. Derived from national economies in their origin and logic of analysis, international economic relations have a significant, and sometimes decisive, feedback effect on the economic policies of states.

According to Keynesian theory, the general equation for an open economy is as follows:

Y \u003d C + J + G + Xn,

Xn is export (X) minus import (Z).

Export expands effective demand by adding foreign sales of goods and services to domestic, while imports replace domestic consumption with alternative foreign products, i.e. domestic market opportunities are shrinking.

The openness of the economy complicates state economic regulation, reduces its efficiency, since external factors are connected to interdependence.

International comparisons show, for example, that the propensity to import was high in Switzerland and Great Britain in the 1960s and 1980s, but noticeably lower in the USA and Japan. The national income growth multiplier for these countries found an interesting sequence: Switzerland - 1.3; Great Britain - 1.4; US 3.2; Japan - 3.7.

To quantify the impact of foreign trade on the growth of national income and gross national product, economic theory has developed and uses in practice the foreign trade multiplier model.

The initial export change sets off a chain reaction that, decreasing with each successive cycle, has the effect of amplifying the original change many times over.

Export multiplier or simple foreign trade multiplier(μ x) is determined by internal processes in the sphere of consumption and can be determined through the marginal propensity to consume (MPS) or the marginal propensity to save (MPS):

μ x = 1/MPC = 1/(1-MPS).

The impact of an increase in exports on the volume of production is determined based on the formula:

∆Y = μ x * ∆Хn.

But international trade is not only exports, but also imports. And if we take into account that part of the received export income goes to imports, then domestic purchasing power will decrease. Imports act as a drain, similar to savings (imports have a negative sign). Therefore, imports can be analyzed similarly to the savings function.

Marginal propensity to import (MPM) is the ratio of the change in the volume of imports to the change in income.

The equilibrium income is:

Trade policy - it is a government policy that influences trade through taxes, subsidies, and direct restrictions on imports or exports.

State regulation of foreign economic relations is a set of forms, methods and tools used by state bodies and services to influence economic relations between countries in accordance with state and national interests.

The regulatory impact of the state is carried out through the adoption of laws, regulations and decisions of the government.

Two main directions of foreign economic policy are known from history: protectionism and free trade.

Free trading - it is a policy of free trade, the absence of artificial (established by the government) barriers to trade between individuals and firms of different countries. At the same time, the customs authorities perform only registration functions, export or import duties are not collected, and no restrictions are imposed on foreign trade turnover.

The principle of free trade was the official economic policy of England in the 19th century, based on Ricardo's theory of comparative advantage. Such a policy can be pursued by a country with a highly efficient economy, in which local entrepreneurs are able to withstand foreign competition.

Protectionism - this is a policy of creating favorable conditions for domestic entrepreneurs in comparison with foreign ones, i.e. protection of national producers from foreign competitors with the help of trade barriers.

There are 2 groups of methods of protectionist policy:

1. Tariff methods.

2. Non-tariff methods.

Non-tariff methods are divided into groups:

1. Administrative measures or quantitative restrictions: licensing (selective issuance of licenses); quoting; certification; import ban.

2. Engineering measures (ie health, safety and environmental standards): labeling and packaging requirements; veterinary and hygienic control; certain quality standards.

3. Economic methods:

§ currency control;

§ ensuring the payment of customs duties;

§ price controls (eg price flooring and price investigations in case of anti-dumping measures);

§ state monopoly on foreign trade;

§ government negotiations with the exporter on the "voluntary" restriction of supplies to the country.

In relation to international trade, the state uses such instruments of influence as:

§ customs tariffs;

§ restrictive conditions;

§ interstate treaties and agreements;

§ Measures to stimulate exports and imports.

Free trade has many advantages:

1. Through free trade based on the principle of comparative costs, the world economy can achieve a more efficient allocation of resources. If each country specializes in the production and export of those goods and services in which it has absolute or comparative advantages, and imports goods and services from other countries in which its advantages are small or non-existent, then world production, world economic growth and efficiency the use of limited resources reaches its maximum.

2. Free trade limits monopoly and stimulates competition. Increased competition from foreign firms forces local firms to move to production technologies with the lowest costs.

3. Free trade gives consumers the opportunity to choose from a wider range of products.

Protectionism reduces or eliminates the benefits of specialization. If countries cannot trade freely, they must shift resources from efficient (low-cost) to inefficient uses to meet their diverse needs.

Protectionism destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges and generates rent by position. It is also harmful from the point of view of the consumer, whom he makes overpay for the goods and services he needs.

The existence of states opposing each other sets the task for national governments to ensure national interests, including through protectionist measures. Almost every country applies trade restrictions.

The economy of a country can be open or closed.

Benefits of an open economy are:

Deepening the specialization and cooperation of production;

Rational distribution of resources depending on the degree of efficiency;

Dissemination of world experience through the system of international economic relations;

Increasing competition between domestic producers, stimulated by competition in the world market.

Another indicator of the openness of the economy, expressing the ratio between imports and gross domestic product (GDP), is the indicator of the import quota.

The foreign trade quota (FTC) is usually referred to as a more comprehensive indicator of openness.

According to Keynesian theory, the general equation for an open economy is as follows:

Y = C + J + G +xn,

Xn is export (X) minus import (Z).

The openness of the economy complicates state economic regulation, reduces its efficiency, since external factors are connected to interdependence.

To quantify the impact of foreign trade on the growth of national income and gross national product, economic theory has developed and uses in practice the foreign trade multiplier model.

The initial export change sets off a chain reaction that, decreasing with each successive cycle, has the effect of amplifying the original change many times over.

Export multiplier or simple foreign trade multiplier (μ x) is determined by internal processes in the sphere of consumption and can be determined through the marginal propensity to consume (MPS) or the marginal propensity to save (MPS):

μ x = 1/MPC = 1/(1-MPS).

The impact of an increase in exports on the volume of production is determined based on the formula:

∆Y = μ x * ∆Хn.

Marginal propensity to import (M P M) is the ratio of the change in the volume of imports to the change in income.

The equilibrium income is:

Trading policy – is a public policy that eye calling impact on trade through taxes, subsidies and direct ogre scrutiny for import or export.

The regulatory impact of the state is carried out through the adoption of laws, regulations and decisions of the government.

Two main directions of foreign economic policy are known from history: protectionism and free trade.

There are 2 groups of methods of protectionist policy:

1. Tariff methods.

2. Non-tariff methods.

Non-tariff methods are divided into groups:

1. Administrative measures or quantitative restrictions: licensing (selective issuance of licenses); quoting; certification; import ban.

2. Engineering measures (ie health, safety and environmental standards): labeling and packaging requirements; veterinary and hygienic control; certain quality standards.

3. Economic methods:

§ currency control;

§ ensuring the payment of customs duties;

§ price controls (eg price flooring and price investigations in case of anti-dumping measures);

§ state monopoly on foreign trade;

§ government negotiations with the exporter on the "voluntary" restriction of supplies to the country.

In relation to international trade, the state uses such instruments of influence as:

§ customs tariffs;

§ restrictive conditions;

§ interstate treaties and agreements;

§ Measures to stimulate exports and imports.

Free trade has many advantages:

2. Free trade limits monopoly and encourages competition. smoking. Increased competition from foreign firms is forcing local firms to move into manufacturing technologists holes with the lowest costs.

3. Free trade gives consumers the opportunity to choose from a wider range of products.

Protectionism reduces or negates the benefits of specialization. If countries cannot trade freely, they must shift resources from efficient (low-cost) to inefficient uses in order to meet their diverse needs.

Protectionism destroys the spirit of competition, develops privileges and generates an annuity by position. It is also harmful from the point of view of the consumer, whom he forces to overpay for the goods and services he needs.

International trade- this is trade between countries, consisting of the export and import of goods and services. Its volume is calculated by summing up the volumes of exports and imports. Export- sale of goods, providing for its export abroad. Import- the purchase of goods, providing for its import from abroad. Export and import are two key concepts that characterize the international movement of goods, which are used for a comprehensive analysis of foreign trade and for practical purposes. The total amount of exports and imports is foreign trade turnover with foreign countries. Exports and imports of goods for which payments have been made for a given period form trade balance. The balance of trade is only part of the balance of payments. Payment balance includes the sum of all monetary payments made by a given country to other countries for a certain period, and the sum of all monetary receipts received by it during the same period from other countries. It is possible to have a passive trade balance, i.e. the excess of imports of goods over exports, and at the same time the active balance of payments, i.e. excess of money receipts from abroad over payments to other countries.

There are a number of indicators characterizing the degree of a country's involvement in foreign economic relations. For example, export quota shows the ratio of the value of exports to the value of GDP. The volume of exports per capita of a given country characterizes the degree of "openness" of the economy. Export potential(export opportunities) - this is the share of products that a given country can sell on the world market without harming its own economy (minus domestic needs).

It should be noted that the export orientation of production makes it dependent on changes in world prices, fluctuations in supply and demand, competition in the world market. Such dependence is especially dangerous for countries with a narrow specialization of the economy, the development of which is predetermined by export earnings. Import dependence is no less fraught with dangerous consequences. Rising world prices, a trade deficit, restrictions on foreign trade deliveries in the exporting country - all this can adversely affect an economy that is overly dependent on imports. Production created with the participation of foreign capital and on the basis of imported technology can lead to dependence on foreign economic centers.

The country's foreign trade is regulated by the state in the course of implementing foreign trade policy. When developing and implementing foreign trade policy, two fundamental approaches are used. First, free trade, implies freedom of trade, its implementation without restrictions; second, protectionism, justifies state intervention in international trade in order to promote its growth, taking into account the interests of the national economy. Instability in world trade, world economic crises force countries to use the policy of trade protectionism. Previously, protectionism relied mainly on the tariff and customs system, but after the Second World War, the importance of non-tariff barriers increased sharply, the number of which is constantly growing. The purpose of non-tariff barriers is the general restriction of imports through trade discrimination of individual countries. Non-tariff barriers include the state monopoly of foreign trade, provision of state consumption only with domestically produced goods, complex currency control over the import of goods, sanitary standards for food products, etc. The most widespread in recent years has received such a type of non-tariff restriction as import quotas, those. quantitative restriction of the volume of foreign products annually permitted by the state for import into a given country. At the same time, the state issues a limited number of import licenses and prohibits unlicensed imports.

To regulate relations between countries in the field of foreign trade, international organizations were created: GATT, UNCTAD and others. GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade) Since 1995, the World Trade Organization (WTO) began to function as a successor to the WTO.

43.currency system and exchange rate. important in world economic relations are currency relations, which are one of the most dynamically developing forms of international economic relations. They arise with the beginning of the functioning of money in the international payment turnover and serve the exchange of the results of the activities of the subjects of the world economy. When national monetary units go beyond national borders, they acquire a new quality - they become a currency. concept currency it is used in several meanings: the monetary unit of a given country (US dollar, Japanese yen, etc.) and one or another of its types (gold, silver, paper); banknotes of foreign states, as well as credit and means of payment expressed in foreign monetary units and used in international settlements - foreign currency; international (regional) monetary unit of account and means of payment (SDR - special drawing rights, euro - the common currency of the EU countries).

Depending on the degree of freedom of exchanging the national currency for a foreign one, freely convertible, partially convertible and closed, non-convertible currencies are distinguished. Freely convertible currency(SLE) - a currency freely and unlimitedly exchanged for other foreign currencies. SLE has, as a rule, complete external and internal reversibility; the same exchange regimes for both non-residents and residents. The scope of the exchange of hard currency extends to current operations related to daily foreign economic activity (foreign trade exchange, non-trade payments, foreign tourism), as well as to operations for the movement of external loans and foreign investments. Hard currency can be exchanged for any other currencies without special permissions, the mode of its operation practically means the absence of any currency restrictions. Currently, hard currency includes the US dollar, the Canadian dollar, the national currencies of the EU countries, Switzerland and Japan. The hard currency is usually used in determining the foreign exchange price. Partially convertible currency(4KB)- the national currency of countries in which currency restrictions are applied for residents and for certain types of exchange transactions. As a rule, 4KB is exchanged only for some foreign currencies and not for all types of international payment transactions. Closed, non-convertible currency- a national currency that functions only within one country and is not exchanged for other foreign currencies. Closed currencies include the currencies of countries that apply various restrictions and prohibitions on the export and import, sale, purchase and exchange of national and foreign currencies, as well as using various measures of foreign exchange regulation, including currency coefficients in order to limit settlements in foreign currency. Closed are the national currencies of most developing countries.

The price of the monetary unit of the national currency, expressed in monetary units of the currency of another country, is called exchange rate. Its general basis is the purchasing power of the currency, which reflects the average national price levels for goods, services, and investments. The specific value of the exchange rate also depends on the rate of inflation, the difference in the levels of interest rates, the state of the balance of payments. There are two polar exchange rate regimes: fixed and floating, as well as their various combinations and varieties. Fixed exchange rate- the officially established ratio between national currencies, based on legally determined currency parities. floating rate- exchange rate freely changing under the influence of supply and demand, based on the use of the market mechanism.

The formation of stable relations regarding the purchase and sale of currency and their legal consolidation led to the formation of a monetary system. currency system- this is a set of monetary relations that have developed on the basis of the internationalization of economic life, the development of the world market and consolidation in international treaties and state legal norms. There are national, international (regional) and world currency systems. National currency systems represent a set of economic relations through which the international payment turnover is carried out, the currency resources necessary for the normal process of social reproduction are formed and used. World and international (regional) currency systems serve the mutual exchange of the results of the activities of national economies. Their basis is the international division of labor, commodity production and foreign trade between countries. The world monetary system has gone through a number of stages in its development. The first established world monetary system was the Parisian, the characteristic features of which were the adoption of the gold (gold coin) standard and the regime of freely floating exchange rates. In 1922, to replace the Parisian, the Genoese currency system was legally formalized, which was based on the gold exchange standard (in addition to gold, mottos were used - foreign currencies). Gold parities were maintained, a floating exchange rate regime was in effect. For some time in some countries (USA, Great Britain, France) the gold bullion standard was also used.

The next stage in the development of the world monetary system is associated with the decisions of the international monetary and financial conference in Bretton Woods (USA, 1944), which legally formalized the new Bretton Woods monetary system. Its main principles are: preservation of the functions of world money behind gold while simultaneously using national monetary units, primarily the US dollar, as well as the British pound sterling, as international payment and reserve currencies;

In accordance with the decisions of the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944, two monetary and financial and credit organizations were created in the system UN. International Monetary Fund (IMF) - an international monetary and financial organization created to promote the development of international trade and monetary cooperation by establishing the rules for regulating exchange rates and monitoring their observance, a multilateral system of payments and the elimination of foreign exchange restrictions, as well as to provide credit resources to its members in case of foreign exchange difficulties associated with the imbalance of balances of payments, and for the implementation of programs to stabilize the economy. The new economic and political conditions required major changes in the instruments, methods and organization of the world monetary system. They were formalized in the decisions of the Kingston (Jamaica, 1976) conference of the countries - participants of the International Monetary Fund. The agreement, signed in Kingston in 1976 and entered into force in 1978, meant the legal registration of the fourth world monetary system. The Jamaican monetary system characterizes the current stage in the development of the world monetary system and provides for the complete demonetization of gold and the final transition to the use of national currencies and international monetary units - special drawing rights (SDRs) issued by the IMF as world money. This implies: the abolition of the official price of gold and gold parities; stopping the exchange of dollars for gold for central banks and government bodies; permission to sell and buy gold at market prices; the right of countries to choose any exchange rate regime; recognition of a system of floating exchange rates instead of their rigid fixation; vesting the IMF with the authority to monitor the monetary policy of member countries. -

In Western Europe, in 1979, the European Monetary System and the European currency unit ECU were created, which became one of the world currencies and entered into circulation as world money in the world economy. On January 1, 1999, there was a transition to the single currency of the countries of the European Union - the euro.

44 . Transition economy and its features in Russia. transitional economy by its nature, there is a special state in the evolution of the economy, when it functions precisely during the period of transition of society from one historical stage to another. The transitional economy characterizes the "intermediate" state of society, a turning point, a time of economic, political and social transformations. The main features of the transition economy are: its instability - developmental changes in the transitional economy increase the instability of the existing system so that in the end it gradually gives way to another economic system; alternate character development - the results of the development of a transitional economy can be different; the emergence and functioning of special transitional economic forms - they manifest "mixing" of the old and the new in the transition period, these forms indicate the direction of the transition and are a sign of its irreversibility; special nature of contradictions in a transitional economy - they are revolutionary in nature, since speech goes about the change of economic systems; historicity transitional economy - the processes of changing economic systems proceed with different intensity, the duration of the transition depends on the characteristics of the region ^ of a particular country.

The types of economies in transition can vary in scale. When classifying by scale, local and global transitional economies are distinguished. Local transitional economy characterizes a transitional state in any region or individual country. It is based on the peculiarity of the development of each economy and the resulting uneven development of various regions and countries. Global transition economy represents a single process of change on the scale of the entire world economy. Global transitional processes are characteristic of the entire history of mankind. Changes at the local levels have a decisive influence on their development, as a result of which certain global trends are formed. At the same time, global processes are also developing under the influence of independent (global) factors, in particular, the deepening of the social division of labor, leading to the internationalization of economic life.

The transition process in Russia takes place in the special historical conditions of the unfolding global transition processes. Developed industrial countries are in the zone of transition from industrial to post-industrial society, which means profound qualitative changes in the functioning of the social organism: the role of non-material production is significantly increasing; in contrast to an industrial society, a person comes to the fore in comparison with technical and technological factors; According to some definitions, society is moving from the energy era to the information era. Countries with a significant development of elements of the traditional economy are now rapidly progressing towards modern forms of market economy. The states of Central and Eastern Europe, Russia and other republics of the former USSR are making the transition from an administrative-command system to a social market economy.

A feature of the modern transition economy in Russia is the historical unprecedentedness of the transition, which acts as a transition to a market economy not from a traditional one, but from a special one that existed in a relatively small number of planned economy countries. In this sense, Russia, as after 1917, once again acting as a pioneer in many respects, must solve problems that have not been known to date. All this constitutes special difficulties for transient processes. The experience of other former socialist countries, which started the transition a little earlier, cannot be used to the full extent both because of the different scale and economy, and because of the shorter duration of the planned system in them. The uniqueness of Russian problems means that one cannot rely on any “played models” developed for transients in their solution.

Market reforms in Russia began in a difficult economic environment. The country began its transition to a market economy in the face of an economic and political crisis. Crisis phenomena in economics began in the second half of 1987 and were marked by a rapid increase in the state budget deficit: Such indicators testified to a complete upset! state finances and the impossibility of a normal fu! shareholding of the economic system as a whole. The reasons for this were: the well-known anti-alcohol campaign, carried out by mainly administrative methods and leading to a sharp< кращению доходов бюджета; кампания «ускорения» экономиче" кого развития на базе научно-технического прогресса, повлекш; за собой ущерб для потребления населения в результате искусе венного нагнетания инвестиций в машиностроение; резкое сокр щение золотого запаса страны; повышение закупочных цен на сел скохозяйственную продукцию при фиксировании розничных ц< на продовольствие, что привело к росту дотаций, а следовательн к увеличению бюджетного дефицита; резкое увеличение внешн< задолженности страны; распространение хозрасчета на отдельш территории, в результате чего те перестали платить налоги в общ государственную казну; всеобщий переход на бартер и огранич ния на вывоз товаров с отдельных территорий. Кроме того, отрицательно повлияли на экономику страны такие факторы, как падение мировых цен на нефть, чернобыльская катастрофа, землетрясение в Армении, забастовки шахтеров и этнические конфликты.

By the beginning of the 90s. Union political power largely lost its former strength, which led to a loss of control over the economy and intensified the crisis in the economic life of the country. The situation became even more complicated when the Soviet Union collapsed at the end of 1991. As a result, the previously existing single national economic complex of the USSR collapsed, the economic ties within which were much closer than, for example, within the European market. This factor sharply deepened the economic crisis and led to a new round of falling production in Russia. By the end of 1991, a critical situation developed, when the consumer market was essentially destroyed, there was a threat of financial collapse, non-payments to the state budget. The government could no longer sit idle and wait. It was necessary to decide: either to return back to a rigidly centralized administrative system of management, or to go for a radical economic reform, forward to the market. The second path was chosen - the transition to the market, but without preparation and gradualness, step by step, starting with price liberalization.

On January 2, 1992, the state regulation of 80% of wholesale and 90% of retail consumer prices was abolished. According to the calculations of the government of E. Gaidar, retail prices should have increased by 2-3 times. In fact, they increased during the first quarter of 1992 by more than 6 times, and compared with the beginning of 1991 - by 13-15 times 2 . It was a strong shock blow to society. The cost of the economic reforms of 1992 turned out to be prohibitive: there was a significant decline in the living standards of the population, the decline in production intensified, inflation increased, the scientific and technical potential of the country began to actively collapse, the structure of production deteriorated, its efficiency fell, etc. The government of the radical reformers had largely lost public confidence, and the need to correct the adopted course of reforms was recognized. In December 1992, Prime Minister Ye. Gaidar was replaced by V. Chernomyrdin. In general, in the period 1992-1996. there was a significant decline in production. The volume of real gross domestic product decreased by about 40%, industrial production - by 50% 3 .

The current situation in Russia requires an adjustment of the course of reforms in the following areas. First- social reorientation of the entire economic policy. The criterion for raising the level and quality of life of the population should become the main one in the selection of options for making all economic and political decisions. Second- creation of conditions for stimulating economic activity and fuller use of the economic potential of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation. Tax, budgetary, monetary policy should be carried out based on the needs of each region with the maximum mobilization of its own resources. Third- Strengthening control over the monetary sphere! countries. It is necessary to restore the full viability of money and achieve financial balance in the country. Economic, organizational tools are required to direct cash flows for investment in production. Fourth- putting things in order in the management of state property. Privatization did not create a layer of efficient owners. Monetary privatization has recently been carried out according to individual schemes for the transfer of the most valuable objects belonging to the state to private ownership. There is a danger that the fight against natural monopolies may also lead to the same result. The reform cannot be reduced to mere meekness of insolvent enterprises, macroeconomic policy is designed to provide conditions for the normalization of the situation; tions at the level of microeconomics. Fifth- development of a unified strategy for structural restructuring of the economy. Stimulation of scientific and technological progress< должно быть стержневым направлением государственной экон мической политики.sixth- increased attention to the problems of agriculture, as it creates jobs in industry, and is the basis of the country's food security.

seventh- restoration of a single economic space within the greater part of the former Soviet Union. eighth- the gradual opening of the country to foreign competition, to attract foreign investment capital, the inclusion of the Russian economy in international economic life, its active participation in the world trade and monetary and financial system. The state should play a key role in restoring the Russian economy as the most important guarantor of the withdrawal her out of the crisis. It is necessary to create an integral, internally consistent system of legislative acts that ensure state regulation of the economy. On the whole, Russia has every opportunity to embark on the path of stabilization and economic growth on a new socio-economic basis.

The traditional and most developed form of international economic relations is foreign trade in goods.

The following terms are used to characterize trade between countries:

International or world trade- trade between all countries of the world. The sphere of international commodity-money relations, which is a combination of foreign trade of all countries of the world.

Interstate, mutual, bilateral trade- Trade between two countries.

International trade- trade of one country with the rest of the world. Foreign trade consists of two main flows - export and import.

Export- sale of goods, providing for its export from the country.

Import- the purchase of goods, providing for its import into the country.

To characterize foreign trade, there are the following indicators.

Foreign trade turnover- characterizes the participation of an individual country in international trade and is calculated as the sum of the value of exports and imports.

Foreign trade balance- characterizes the balance of foreign trade of a particular country and is calculated as the difference between the cost volumes of exports and imports. The excess of the volume of exports of goods over the volume of imports provides the country with a surplus trade balance (a positive balance trade balance TB). If the volume of imports is greater than the volume of exports, there is a passive trade balance (negative TB balance).

Terms of trade (terms of trade, terms of sale)- an indicator characterizing the conditions that develop for the foreign trade of a country or a group of countries in the world market, and representing the ratio of export and import price indices:

I At T = I X / I M× 100%.

Determines the purchasing power of exports of a country or group of countries, i.e. the quantity of goods that can be imported with their export earnings. The growth of the terms of trade index indicates an improvement in the situation for the country on the world market, and, conversely, its decrease indicates its deterioration.

A quantitative indicator of international or world trade is volume of world (international) trade- characterizes the total volume of international trade of all countries of the world. Calculated as world exports (since one country's exports are another's imports, adding world exports and imports would result in a double count).

Foreign trade policy - an integral part of foreign economic policy aimed at developing and regulating trade relations with other countries of the world and their groupings in order to strengthen the position of the country and its business in the world economic arena.

Autarky- economic isolation of the country from other countries, the creation of a closed economy within a separate state.

In its purest form, autarky manifested itself in the conditions of subsistence farming.

In the second half of the XX century. the liberalization of the economy began to intensify, independence from the influence of the state, i.e. a trend towards the abolition of restrictions on trade and the movement of factors of production, towards a transition from autarky and protectionism to free trade. Currently, there are two main areas of foreign trade policy: protectionism and free trade (free trade policy).

Protectionism (cover, patronage) - a policy aimed at protecting the domestic market and actively encouraging national companies to enter foreign markets.

Protectionism was the first policy adopted by states that were formed at the dawn of capitalism. Protectionism was intended to promote the development of an industry that was still in its infancy and at the stage of manufacture. Starting from the second half of the 19th century, Great Britain and France switched to a policy of free trade, while Germany and the USA, where the process of formation of industrial capitalism was just beginning, adhered to a policy of protectionism. This policy was intensified in all industrialized countries during the era of the formation of monopolies, during the First and Second World Wars, the deep economic crisis of 1929-1933.

In the postwar years, industrialized countries are moving towards the liberalization of foreign trade.

Liberalization- a form of foreign trade (foreign economic) policy that involves the removal of all sorts of barriers that impede the development of foreign trade and foreign economic relations in general.

The opposite of protectionism is free trade.

free trading(free trade) – exchange of goods and services between countries, freed to the maximum extent from restrictions in the form of customs duties, quantitative and other non-tariff barriers.

The openness of the economy leads to increased competition in the country and to an increase in the efficiency of the economy (usually in the long term).

Unlike developed countries, many developing countries are pursuing a policy of protectionism, protecting the newly emerging national industry.

Instruments of state regulation of foreign trade are divided into tariff and non-tariff ones.

Customs tariff - this is a systematized list of customs duties that are levied on goods when imported, and in some cases when exported from a given country .

Customs tariff - a collection (set) of customs duty rates applied to goods transported across the customs border of the country, systematized in accordance with the Commodity Nomenclature of Foreign Economic Activity.

Customs duty - state monetary fees collected by customs institutions from goods, valuables and property transported across the customs border of the country.

Non-tariff restrictions- “any action, other than tariffs, that impedes the free flow of international trade”, such as embargoes, subsidies, licenses.